Democratic Enlightenment: Philosophy, Revolution, and Human Rights, 1750-1790

1083 Pages·2011·4.64 MB·English

by  Jonathan Israel

DEMOCRATIC ENLIGHTENMENT
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Democratic
Enlightenment
Philosophy, Revolution, and Human
Rights 1750–1790
JONATHAN ISRAEL
1
3
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Acknowledgements
During the years I have spent working on this third volume of my Enlightenment
series,IhavebenefitedsoextensivelyfromdiscussionabouttheEnlightenmentinits
many aspects with colleagues—historians, philosophers, and social scientists—
around the world that it would make little sense simply to present a long list of
them here. To those who have helped me most to correct errors and advance my
understanding of the numerousthemes and aspects where I have profited fromthe
expertise of others, I have repeatedly spoken of my sense of debt and obligation.
IwouldsimplyliketoaddherethatIamimmenselygratefulforallthestimulation
andhelpthatresultedfromallthisdiscussionandsingthepraises,asmanyofthem
would wish to too, in particular of three splendid centres for research and debate
wherethelargestamountsofthisprocessofcomparingnoteswenton.Fortraining
in informed as well as independent critical thinking about society, politics, the
democraticfreedoms,andtheusesofknowledge,thehumanitiessurpasseverything
elsebyfar,andinthisuncomprehendingerawhenthehumanitiesareinretreatinso
many higher education systems around the world there is nothing to beat the
internationalresearchinstitutesforadvancingwhatisbestinthehumanities.
Without the immense advantage of having been based at the Institute for
Advanced Study, Princeton, during the period on which I worked on this volume
notonlywoulditlackmuchofwhateverstrengthithasbutitwouldalmostcertainly
never have been attempted at all. Neither the time, nor the scholarly resources, nor
the debates, nor the cross-disciplinary stimulation would have been available to
anything like the necessary extent. The several months that I spent at the NIAS
(Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study), the Dutch equivalent of the Princeton
Institute,werealsoinvaluableinthisrespectaswerethemonthsIworkedinOxford
based at Corpus Christi College. Itis to these threecentres, above all the Princeton
Institute,thatIowemyoverridingdebt.Further,Iwouldliketoaddaheartywordof
thanks to all the many librarians in libraries in Europe and both Americas that
assistedwiththisvasttask.
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Contents
ListofPlates xiii
ListofAbbreviations xv
1. Introduction 1
1. DefiningtheEnlightenment 1
2. InterpretingtheEnlightenment:TheArgument 8
3. SocialContext,CulturalProcess,Ideas 17
PART I: THE RADICAL CHALLENGE
2. NatureandProvidence:EarthquakesandtheHumanCondition 39
1. TheGreatEnlightenmentEarthquakeControversy(1750–1757) 39
2. PhilosophyandInterpretingDisaster 50
3. TheEncyclope´dieSuppressed(1752–1760) 56
1. Fighting‘laPhilosophieModerne’ 56
2. DiderotLoseshisContributors 64
3. The‘War’oftheEncyclope´dieafter1759 82
4. RousseauagainstthePhilosophes 93
1. BreakingwiththeEncyclope´distes 93
2. VirtueRestored 100
3. DeismandtheRootsofPoliticalRadicalism 106
5. Voltaire,Enlightenment,andtheEuropeanCourts 110
1. ModerateEnlightenmentDominant? 110
2. RegroupingatCleves 124
3. AFalteringMainstream 130
6. Anti-philosophes 140
1. Anti-philosophieasaCulturalForce 140
2. CatholicEnlightenmentagainstRadicalThought 151
3. Philosophy,Religion,andtheSocialOrder 158
4. Anti-philosophieversusSpinozaandBayle 162
viii Contents
7. CentralEurope:Aufkla¨rungDivided 172
1. TheLegacyofLeibnizandWolff 172
2. BerlinanditsRoyalAcademy 188
3. Kant:Searchingfor theMiddlePassage 195
4. Reimarus:ErosionfromtheCentre 200
PART II: RATIONALIZING THE ANCIEN RE´GIME
8. Hume,Scepticism,andModeration 209
1. Hume’sEnlightenment 209
2. Hume,Aristocracy,andtheBritishEmpire 220
9. ScottishEnlightenmentandMan’s‘Progress’ 233
1. Smith,Ferguson,andCivilSociety 233
2. Kames,Race,andProvidence 248
3. Reidand‘CommonSense’ 256
10. EnlightenedDespotism 270
1. RadicalEnlightenmentagainst‘EnlightenedDespotism’ 270
2. TheGermanSmallStates 278
3. JosephII,‘Josephism’,andtheAustrianMonarchy 283
4. Music,Literature,andtheFineArts 296
11. Aufkla¨rungandtheFracturingofGermanProtestantCulture 302
1. Deismbesieged 302
2. BahrdtandFreedomofExpression 310
3. LessingandtheFragmentenstreit 315
12. CatholicEnlightenment:ThePapacy’sRetreat 326
1. ModerateversusRadicalEnlightenmentinItaly 326
2. BeccariaandLegalReform 336
13. SocietyandtheRiseoftheItalianRevolutionaryEnlightenment 349
1. The‘ReformofItaly’Controversy 349
2. ReformingAustrianMilan 356
3. Deprivation,Revolution,andthe‘TwoSicilies’ 364
Contents ix
14. SpainandtheChallengeofReform 374
1. RemakingaTransatlanticEmpire 374
2. TheJesuitsandCarlosIII’sChurchPolicy 383
3. TheOlavideAffair 389
4. SpainandtheRadicalChallenge 395
PART III: EUROPE AND THE REMAKING OF THE WORLD
15. TheHistoirephilosophique,orColonialismOverturned 413
1. TheBookthatmadeaWorld‘Revolution’ 413
2. PhilosophyandtheIndies 425
3. TransatlanticImpact 436
4. TheHistoirephilosophiqueasaProjectofWorldRevolution 438
16. TheAmericanRevolution 443
1. EnlightenmentandtheBirthoftheUnitedStates 443
2. Counter-EnlightenmentandModernity 460
3. Princeton,Harvard,Yale,andColumbia 465
4. UndemocraticStates 470
5. AnInconclusiveLegacy 478
17. EuropeandtheAmerindians 480
1. AztecsandIncasReconfigured 480
2. Amerindians:Saved,ortobeSaved? 489
3. TheTupacAmaruRebellion 497
18. PhilosophyandRevoltinIbero-America(1765–1792) 504
1. TheCreole–PeninsularRift 504
2. BourbonEnlightenmentintheAmericas 510
3. RadicalEnlightenmentDiffusedacrosstheAtlantic 516
4. TheAmericanRevolutionandtheSpanishAmerican
Revolution(1780–1809) 522
5. PhilosophyandSelf-EmancipationfromSpain 527
19. CommercialDespotism:DutchColonialisminAsia 535
1. AnAsianEmpire 535
2. TheEnlightenmentRadiatingfromBatavia 543