Table Of ContentOXFORD
PAKIS.L\J-.1 PAPERBACK.!:>
DEAD RECKONING
Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War
SARMILA BOSE
Dead Reckoning
Memories of the 1971
Bangladesh "~far
SARMILA BOSE
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
VNIVERSITY PRESS
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Published in Pakistan by Oxford University Press
© Sarmila Bose 201 1. All fights reserved.
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Originally published in Great Britain in 2011
by C. Hurst & Co. (Publishers) London
First published in Pakistan by Oxford University Press, 2011
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DEAD RECKONING
Dadua and Dida
Charu Chandra Chowdhuri and Chhaya Devi Chowdhurani
for everything
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments
ix
Inrroduction: Memories in Conflict
I. Call to Arms: Bengali Nationalise Rebellion
17
2. Military lnaetion: Power without Responsibility
29
3. Military Action: 'Operation Searchlight' in Dhaka
47
4. Uncivil War: Mobs, Mutinies and Madness
71
5. Village ofWidows: 'Securing' the Countryside
97
6. Hounding of Hindus: The Politics of Minority Persecution
115
7. Hit and Run: Sabotage and Retribution
127
8. Fratricide: Death Squads at War's End
149
9. Words and Numbers: Memories and Monstrous Fables
161
Appendix I: Bibliographical Note
185
Appendix 2: Participants and Eye-witnesses Interviewed
199
Notes
203
Select Bibliography
227
Index
231
vii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I owe a debt of gratitude to many people who helped me in innumerable ways
over the several years it took to research and write this book. lt is not possible
to acknowledge by name everyone who helped in some way, but I would like
co mention the following:
I thank all those who agreed to calk to me about their experiences of the
I 971 conflict. They are acknowledged by name throughout the book and in
the Appendix, e;cept for the few instances of anonymity.
In Bangladesh I thank Tanvir Mokammd and his entire team for their
immense assistance, from helping identify incidents to investigate, contacting
witnesses, finding books and audio-visual material to transporting me to many
incident sites, and providing rhe most scrumptious Bengali meals along the
way; Rashid Haider, who simply gave me a number of his edited volumes of
witness testimony which I was having difficulty acquiring; Jvfofidul Hoque
'and the staff at the Liberation War Museum for providing vital research mate~
rial; Achinrya, without whom research in Khulna district would be truly
'achintyaniya'; Zafar Ahmed for his pointers to research material and people
to talk to, Ghulam Hasnain and family: the Karim ~amily of Dhaka.
In Pakistan I am grateful to Farid and Zahida Ahsanuddin and family for
invaluable help and enduring all manner of imposition; Abdul Hamid and
Hawa Adamjee, Mariam Oomerbhoy and family for their wonderful hospital-
ity; Indu Mitha and family for music and refuge: Ashraf Jehangir Qazi for
reproaching me on hearing about my first paper (without reading it); Lr Gen.
Ali Kuli Khan for the term that became the tide of the book, and he and Brig.
Saleem Zia, Brig. Shaukat Qadir, Brig. Jafar Khan, Col. Anis Ahmed and Col.
Sam in Jan Babar for helping me establish contact with other officers of rele·
vance to my research.
Across three conrinenrs I thank ltry Abraham, Rukun Advani, Gouri Char·
terjee, Suman Chatropadhyay, Srephcn Cohen, Swapan Dasgupra, Sunanda
ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
K. Dana-Ray, Meghna Guharhakurra, Ejaz Haider, Brian Hatcher, Yasmin
Hossain, Aneeta and Nonita Kalra,Jehangir Karamat, Suk.hamay Lahiri, David
Ludden, Ijaz Nabi, Zareen Naqvi, Kalypso Nicolaidis, P. Mathai, William
Milam, Polly O'Hanlon, Rammanohar Reddy, Raj at Roy, I.J. Singh, Poorvi
Vora, David Wash brook; and Parveen Aga and Erin Broacha for minding the
home-front while I travelled. Finally, I thank Alan and my children for putting
up with my disappearances.
I thank Ananda Bazar Parrika, the Sigur Center for Asian Studies at George
Washington University; rhe Office of the Historian of rhe US Scare Depart-
ment; che British Library, in particular che newspaper section; Sakci Roy for
being an absolute treasure at the archives and library of Ananda Bazar Parrika;
Amarchand Mangaldas; members of rhe Tara Group. I thank che team at Hurst
& Co. and Columbia University Press, and in particular Michael Dwyer, Man-
aging Director of Hurst & Co., for his advice and fortitude.
While studying the application of statistics in public policy at Harvard, 1
learned that the real challenge was to apply the near models of theory in the
real world of imperfect, incomplete or unreliable information. When decisions
had robe made, it was nor possible to cop our of doing rhe analysis and arriving
at a recommendation just because rhe data were nor perfect, for they were
never going to be perfect.
Flying helicopters in rhe dark during the war, pUors used 'dead reckoning',
when one's best judgment was rhar by going in a particular direction for a cer-
tain rime in a certain way one was likely to arrive at the intended destination,
or at least as dose as possible to it. Nor flying was not an option. Navigating
through rhe conflicting memories of] 971 seemed a very similar journey. There
is only partial visibility and many treacherous twists and turns, with plenryof
room for error. Yet, by steering a firm course charred by an open mind, research
based on evidence and corroboration, fairness to all sides and analysis anchored
on data rhar you actually have rather than what you would have liked ro have,
one is likely to arrive, inshaliah, ar rhe best approximation of the ideal
destination.
1 am grateful to everyone who helped me, bur they are not responsible for
the content of this book. I am.
I
X
INTRODUCTION
MEMORIES IN CONFLICT
'But is there anyone who is really good? Maybe goodness is just make~believe. Man just
wants to forget the bad stuff and believe in the made~up good stuff. It's e,zsier th.:It wa/
- Villager in Akira Kurosawa's Ra.rhomon
It was evening in Calcutta in che year 1971. I was walking with my mother
from our horne at 1 Woodburn Park co Necaji Bhawan, rhe museum and insti-
tute located in the older ancestral house, round the corner on Elgin Road. This
was unusual, bur chen, unusual evems were afom. Some kind of dreadful fight-
ing had broken ouc in neighbouring Ease Pakistan and refugees were pouring
inco our side of Bengal. My father, a paedia[!ician by profession, had set up a
'field hospiral' near the botder. My older brorher had gone co visir there, but I
was not allowed co go. My mother was involved with other ladies in relief work
for the refugees and I was accompanying her m one of rhese gatherings held
on the ground floor ofNetaji Bhawan.
.
We walked down the long driveway and our of the gate, and crossed Wood-
burn Road ro rum left cowards Elgin Road, and there I saw ir on the pave-
ment-the body, already stiff but cleady recognisable, of our pet cat which had
gone missing. My mother finally led me away and we proceeded ro Netaji Bha-
wan. I didn'r register anything about the refugees that evening. All I remember
is the kind face of Bina Das looking down towards me and saying in a gentle
voice, 'Or prothom dukkho, ntl?' (Her first sorrow, isn't it?)
Bina Das was a Bengali revolutionary. As a young woman she had shot at
the British Governor of Bengal at a convocation ceremony in Calcutta Uni-
versity, and missed. She spent many years in jail. Shootings and revolutionaries
I
DEAD RECKONING
had now jumped out of the pages of history and reappeared on the streets of
Calcutta. The new rebels were called 'Naxalices'1 and they were my incroduc-
tion to domestic politics in India.
If we were out early enough in the morning in those days, from the window
of the car we might see a body on the road, uncleared debris from the previous
night. I remember my mother crying to prevent me from seeing a corpse one
day, while I, with a child's natural curiosity, craned my neck co look. One
morning as we were driving along che Maidan there was a strange thud from
the Ambassador car in from of us and the body of a man flew out and hit a
tree-trunk on the left. Everyone in our car thought he had been thrown from
che back of che Ambassador. The ocher car kepc driving and so did we. When
I started research on the 1971 confl.ict I asked several friends in Calcutta what
chey could remember abouc people being killed by che regime in East Pakistan.
1 was struck by the answer of one colleague who had been a college student at
the time. He said that whatever he remembered about Bangladesh in 1971 was
in recrospecc, as ac the time he had been coo discracted by people being killed
by che regime in Wesc Bengal, on che Indian side of the border.
IfNaxalites were my introduction to domestic polirics, the Bangladesh war
of 1971 was my introduction to internacional politics. The world outside the
gates of 1 Woodburn Park seemed to be a disturbingly violent one. From what
I could gather from fervent discussions among adults in Calcutta, a little more
than two decades after the departure of the British, our Bengali brethren across
the border were once again fighting for freedom. This time, their fellow coun·
trymen from the other side oflndia-West Pakistan is-seemed for some inex·
plicable reason intent on killing them all. All the West Pakistanis seemed to
be generals as well. The ruler was General Yahya Khan and a particularly blood-
chirscy one called General Tikka Khan was in charge in Ease Bengal. Pres idem
Nixon was backingPakistan.Jndia had the support of the Soviet Union. Prime
Minister [ndira Gandhi seemed to be taking on the world single-handed as
India played whice knight co che beleaguered Bangladeshis.
.
Strangely, che existence ofEast Pakistan had barely couched upon our child-
hood until then, even though my maternal family was originally from there.
My grandparents spoke the East Bengali dialects of their respective regions,
but they were long setded in Calcutta. But Bengali nationalism seemed to be
sweeping Calcucca. We had a record of a speech given by che fiery leader of che
Bangladeshis, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman. It was played so many cimes chac I had
the entire speech by heart and can still remember parts ofit. It was from Sheikh
Mujib's speech chat I learned che use of che term 'inshaUah'-'Rakta jakhan
2
INTRODUCTION, MEMORIES IN CONFLICT
diyechhi; he thundered, 'rakta aro debo. Edesher manushke mukto koira chharbo
inshalhzh'. (Since we have given our blood, we wi II give more blood. I will make
the people of chis land free, God willing.)1 When my father wem co Dhaka
after che independence of Bangladesh and mec Sheilch Mujib, che newly
installed Prime Minister dasped him in his proverbial bt:ar-hugand apparently
wept with emotion.
The cales of che refugees were harrowing, cheir plight cruly pitiful. Impor-
tant visicors came co see them. One was the American Senator Edward Ken-
nedy, his handsome face and shirt sleeves translucent amidst the sea of human
misery. George Harrison sang in Bengali, '0 bhagaban khodatallah, moder
chhaira kothagela' (0 Lord God, where have you gone abandoning us). A
Bengali singer sang 'Shono ekti Mujiborer theke lakkha Mujiborerkanthaswarer
dhwani pratidhwani akashe bato.se othe roni-Bangladesh, amar Bangladesh!'
(Listen, from che voice of one Mujib a lakh of Mujib's voices speak and echo
around che wind and sky-Bangladesh, my Bangladesh!)
Finally full-fledged war broke ou< becween India and Pakistan. There had
been a war between India and Pakistan just a few years before, when I was very
small. Ac chac cime che people ofEasr Pakistan were fighting against India.' All
I recall about chat war is sitting on the sofa in the drawing room ofWoodburn
Park with my family when a siren went off at night, while my uncles and cous-
ins who lived on the upper floors came down to us on the ground floor. I
remember being afraid, and not understanding why someone would want to
drop a bomb on us. Another peculiar thing about war was that my father had
to cut up ream'\ of white doth into strips, which he then glued on diagonally,
like an X, on every single glass pane in the house. It took a very longtime, espe-
cially the French windows to the verandah-three sets of which opened our
from rht: drawing room alone. The other odd thing was the black paint on the
cop half of che headlights of all the cars.
This war was short-lived, however. India won, Bangladesh became free.
'There was euphoria all around. The Indian army was led by Sam Manekshaw,
who exuded a dashing 'can-do'. But the man of the moment was the com-
mander of the Eastern command. General Jagjit Singh Aurora, a smardy tur-
baned Silch, framed for history as he sac wich a large man in a beret called
General A.A.K. Niazi, who signed che surrender documents on behalf of Paki-
stan. Sheikh Mujib, a prisoner in West Pakistan for nine months, returned to
Dhaka to a hero's welcome.
Twenty years later [ was recording a radio interview for the BBC in Bush
House in London, where I was one of the presenters of a South Asia news pro-
3
DEAD RECKONING
gramme. My interviewee, in Delhi, was General Jagjit Singh Aurora. As we
tried to get the sound right, I talked to General Aurora. I told him I was from
Calcucca and remembered him as a war-hero. 'Thank you, my dear', said a
kindly voice from the other end of a crackJy line. For the most parr, however,
General Aurora was agitated. His interview was about the human rights viola-
tions against Sikhs in Indian Punjab and draconian laws like TADA.4 I was
sympacheric ro the issue and the inrerview wenc smoothly. Later I heard that
it had not gone as well with an Indian language programme and General
Aurora had got upset. Here was the war-hero of 1971 pined againsr the very
srace he had served, on che grounds of violation of the rights of his people. I
thought I might write something about the irony. 5
Another decade passed before that spark became a full-fledged research
project on 1971.ln the meantime I found rhar General Aurora's public status
as a war-hero did not correspond co the view of some of his fellow officers.
One wrote rhar 'his command did not cake him seriously as a fighrer because
he did nor display che flamboyance of a soldiers' generaJ'.6 Another sneered
char he 'was not regarded in the Army as a commander of any distinction'
and rhar 'he had failed to win the cruse and confidence of most field com-
manders'.7 A third, nor conrenr with a book's worth of disparaging remarks,
even sniped at his wife. 8 General Aurora did not write his memoirs. By the
time I mer him face to face, it was no longer possible ro discuss che derails of
I 97 I with him.'
If chis was the face of the winning commander, I wondered what had become
of the one who had losr. The result was a revelarion. General A.A.K. Niazi
turned our to have a distinguished past and a rragic face. Honoured by the Brit-
ish with the Military Cross for his performance on che Burma front during the
Second World War, he was a general who had lire rally fought his way up from
the ranks and a humble background. In his book and his discussions with me
he condemned the way in which General Tikka Khan had conducted the mili-
tary action in Dhaka on 25 March 1971, bur also criticised General Sahabzada
Yaqub Khan, the previous Governor, for copping out at the eleventh hour of
the crisis. 10 The Bengali insurgency was wiped out within a few weeks ofNiazi's
arrival in East Pakistan in April 1971. But in the continuing absence of any
political secdemenc, his men ended up fighting a wearying war against Indian-
assisred guerrillas for months and chen a full-scale invasion by India from all
directions, helped by a population largely hostile ro the Pakistan army. By all
accounts the Pakistan army performed astonishingly well against India in Ease
Pakisran under almosr impossible odds. Nevertheless, suffering the humiliation
4
INTRODUCTION, MEMORIES IN CONFLICT
of becoming che face of Pakistan's 'sucrender: Niazi found himself vilified by
his own people for losing to India.
11
Much of rhe literature on l971 is preoccupied with the confl.icc between
India and Pakistan, with the Cold War as backdrop, marginali<ing rhe people
of the land where it was fought. Indian accounts are predictably triumphal
with regard ro viccory over Pakistan, with che memoirs of a few officers pep-
pered wich self-promotion and derogation of ochers. Most ofche key players
did not publish memoirs. Pakistani discussions on 1971 are full ofbiner
recriminations, mosdy with regard co losing co India, wirh deafening silence
from the majoriry of chose who had served in Easr Pakisran. The Bangladeshi
refrain, by con erase, plays volubly and melodramatically on che theme of
Pakisrani 'villains' and Bengali 'victims: often with scam regard for tactual
accuracy or analytical sophistication. The material from al1 parties co rhe
conflict is relentlessly partisan, with rhe Bangladeshi ones infused with a
deep sense of grievance char their suffering has nor been given due acknowl-
edgment in the world. Yet, in spite of the passage of three decades, Bangla-
deshis collectively failed co produce well~researched, documented and
choughrful histories of 1971 which might influence world opinion with any
degree of credibility. The conflict of 1971, therefore, is in need of 5eriuus
study in many aspects.
The only book on 1971 char stands out in terms of research, analysis and
objectivity is by the American scholars Richard Sisson and Leo Rose: Jfizr and
Secession: Pakistan, India and the Creation ofBangladesh ( 199 I). Sisson and
Rose did their research in the 1970s, interviewing key players in Pakistan,
India, Bangladesh and the Uniced Scares. Mosc of the senior players have since
passed away, making their work unique. On reading Sisson and Rose I was
intrigued co find chat the picture of what happened in 1971 chat emerges from
chis work by two eminent scholars differed significantly from my childhood
memories from Calcutta, which reflect the dominant narrative and public
perception of 1971 in South Asia and beyond.
While Sisson and Rose's book addressed diplomaric and policy issues of
1971 at the macro level, my srudy addresses rhc ocher end of the spectrum-
how the conflict played our among people at rhe ground level. Its focus is rhe
civil war within rhc territory of East Pakistan-between those who wanted
independence for Bangladesh and chose who believed in preserving the unity
of Pakistan-rather than rhe war between India and Pakistan, though India's
heavy involvement on the pro-liberation side blurs chat distinction to some
extent. The study examines parcicuJar events or areas in-depth, using multiple
5
DEAD RECKONING
sources of information and including rhe testimony of all parties to build as
complete a picture as possible. Irs aim is to contexrualise and humanise the war
by examining specific instances in derail at the ground level, while gaining
insights into rhe conflict as a whole.
I found myself rather uniquely positioned to do this pioneering work. As a
Bengali I was able to receive help from Bangladeshis, visit sites in Bangladesh,
interview Bangladeshi participants and eye-witnesses to events and read Ban-
gladeshi sources in the vernacular. With the help of friends and colleagues in
Pakistan I was able to obtain-after much hard work and perseverance-un-
precedented access to Pakistani participants on the ground in East Pakistan,
the vast majority of rhem officers of the Pakistan army, who were largely
unheard from. This study for the first time brings together the experiences of
all sides of the conflict ac the ground level and combines them with ocher
documentary or audio-visual materiaJ, to create a unique chronicling of the
1971 conflict that serves as the basis for non-partisan analysis. It sheds all pre-
conceived notions and allows the material to tdl its own stories. While I hope
that it is the first of many systematic, dispassionate and evidence-based studies
on 1971 and that there will be more by future scholars, in a crucial way my
study is destined to remain unique just as Sisson and Rose's book was. This is
because many of the people who directly experienced the 1971 war, whom I
interviewed, were already elderly, and will pass away with time.
The case studies in chis book are from different districts and different
moments of che timdine of the conflict, and involve different groups of'com-
batants: 'perpetrators' or 'victims'. They are therefore 'representative' of the
conflict, though not 'comprehensive'. Only institutional projects on a national
level could even attempt to be a 'comprehensive' study of 1971 in any mean-
ingful way, and no such effort is in evidence. Bangladeshi institutional works,
whether government or non-government, all suffer from multiple layers of
partisanship and poor quality and blatant sdectivicy in 'documentation'.
The specific instances studied in-depth in chis book were selected after dis-
cussion with several Bangladeshis with a keen interest in the war, almost all
strongly 'pro-liberation', or else were suggested by research into published
material from all sides. The timeline starts around January 1971, just after the
historic elections of December 1970, and ends in March 1972, three months
after the independence of Bangladesh. The events discussed took place in areas
scattered across the territory of East Pakistan/Bangladesh, indudingJessore,
Khulna, Chittagong, Dhaka, Narsingdi, Mymensingh, Tangail, Rajshahi, Said-
pur, Thakurgaon. There are instances from towns and villages, from che heart
6
INTRODUCTION, MEMORIES IN CONFLICT
of Dhaka to the borderlands with India which surrounds rhe territory of East
Pakistan/Bangladesh on three sidt:.s.
The data was colleered primarily during 2003-6 in Bangladesh and Pakistan
from site visits, interviews with survivors, eye-wirnesses and parricipanrs, pub-
lished and unpublished eye-witness accounts and memoirs in English and
Bengali, photos, films and foreign media reports of rhe rime. During this
period I visited Bangladesh and Pakistan many times. Some of rhe research was
done in Britain and the USA.
I did most of rhe location work in Bangladesh first. There is a constituency
of Bangladt:shis who are devoted to the cause of rhdr independence and to
preserving rhe memories of rhe trauma rhar accompanied irs achievement.
There was no deanh of people who were eager to help, to recommend people
to ralk to or material to read, and to rake me to rhe places where I wan red to
go. They were so happy that I was raking an interest in the srory of their coun~
try. I was overwhelmed by their warmth and hospitality, and tht: timt: people
were wil1ing to give me to talk about what were for rhem ofren very painful
memories. It was hard enough just listening to rhe stories of trauma. Some
survivors spoke with a strange composure, others were racked with grief Some~
rimes, as when a woman broke down while describing how her husband and
son had been shot in front of her in Chuknagar. one had ro set aside rhe task
to comfort the interviewee before resuming. All the while I had ro remind
myself to keepacoolhead and nor lose sight of rhe task at hand. Once I apolo-
gised to Mrs Shyo.mali Nasreen Chowdhury for asking yet another clarifying
question about her husband's kilJing in rhe massacre of Bengali nationalist
professionals and intellectuals in December 1971. She said she did nor mind,
she would speak about it as many rimes as necessary in rhe interest of justice.
Ironically, parrs of rhe Jlood of 'assistance' actually posed problems. I had
to gently separate the true eye~witnesses whose testimony I wanted to record
from rhe numerous others who were all excitedly trying to tell me 'all about ir'
without having been present at r:he scene. I had ro sifr trivial or dubious mare-
rial from the truly useful. Most of rhe Bangladeshi intelligentsia 1 met seemed
ro be unaccustomed to rhe notion of cross-checking for facts or search for
independent corroboration. Many were imbued with hatred or binerness
towards their opponents. Even well~educated people ofren made no distinction
between well~esrablished events and the wildest rumours. Straight questions
about a person or event ofi:en produced answers that had nothing to do with
the question. As a general pattern, usually those who had truly suffered during
1971 were relatively more level-headed and reliable in their testimony. What
7
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