Table Of ContentDATA ANALYSIS AND RESEARCH
FOR SPORT AND EXERCISE SCIENCE
Data Analysis and Research for Sport and Exercise Science is a handbook written for
undergraduate sport and exercise science students, and will be of particular use to
students undertaking quantitative research projects and a research-based dissertation.
The book introduces students to the process of conducting independent research in
sport and exercise physiology, biomechanics and psychology.
The text is divided into the three main areas of Research Design, Data Analysis and
the Interpretation of Findings. Topics covered include:
• Introduction to the scientific research method
• How to conduct a literature review
• How to develop your research question and experimental design
• Using statistical analysis
• Ways to present your data
• Discussing your results and drawing conclusions
Craig Williams is programme director and senior lecturer in sport and exercise science
at the University of Exeter. Chris Wragg is a lecturer in sport and exercise science at the
University of Brighton.
DATA ANALYSIS AND
RESEARCH FOR SPORT
AND EXERCISE SCIENCE
A student guide
Craig Williams
Chris Wragg
First published 2004
by Routledge
11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group
This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2004.
© 2004 Craig Williams and Chris Wragg
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
A catalog record for this book has been requested
ISBN 0-203-64224-4 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 0-203-67495-2 (Adobe eReader Format)
ISBN 0–415–28970–X (hbk)
ISBN 0–415–28971–8 (pbk)
CONTENTS
List of figures vi
List of tables viii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements x
1 Introduction to research in sport and exercise science 1
2 Literature review 12
3 Experimental design 29
4 Averages and distribution 47
5 Statistical tests of difference 60
6 Tests of relationship 77
7 Non-parametric statistics and multivariate statistics 92
8 Presentation of data 101
9 Interpretation of data 113
10 Constructing a discussion and drawing conclusions 124
References 130
Index 131
v
FIGURES
2.1 SportsDiscus search using the descriptor ‘ergogenic aids’ 16
2.2 SportsDiscus search using the descriptor ‘creatine’ 17
2.3 Example of a literature review summary sheet 19
2.4 The concept of a literature review as a funnel 20
2.5 Example of a completed literature review summary sheet 21
3.1 Single subject design 38
3.2 Longitudinal design 40
3.3 True experimental design 41
3.4 Quasi-experimental design 42
3.5 Correlational design 44
3.6 Schematic representing the confidence to conclude causality 45
4.1 Frequency histogram for height of a year group of children 49
4.2 Frequency histogram for height of a year group of children and their
teachers and assistants 51
4.3 Skewed distribution curves with different averages 52
4.4 Frequency histogram for group of 18-year-olds 53
4.5 Normal distribution curve 58
4.6 Distribution curves showing kurtosis 58
5.1 Hamstring flexibility of different genders 61
5.2 Differences in hamstring flexibility between samples from the same
population 62
5.3 Distribution of the population of chance differences 63
5.4 One- and two-tailed tests of difference 67
5.5 Differences in body fat percentage for children of different ages 71
5.6 Post hoc analysis for body fat percentage of different ages 74
5.7 Schematic of a two-way design 75
6.1 Height versus body mass 78
6.2 Scatter plot of height versus body mass 79
6.3 Relationships of different pairs of variables 80
6.4 Patterns in scatter plots 81
6.5 Line of best fit 85
6.6 Predicting scores on one variable based upon scores on another 86
6.7 Standard error of the estimate 87
6.8 Homoscedasticity and heteroscedasticity 88
6.9 Non-linear relationships 88
vi
FIGURES
8.1a 10K running performance depends on lactate steady-state 106
8.1b The relationship between running performance and maximal lactate
steady-state 107
8.2 Visualising results of analysis 108
8.3 Use of graphs 1 109
8.4 Use of graphs 2 110
9.1 Power as a balance between the probability of making a type I and
type II error 117
9.2a A correlation coefficient with a constricted Y variable of a group of
students 119
9.2b A correlation coefficient with a constricted Y variable of a group of
children 119
9.3 The addition of further data points and its effect on the correlation
coefficient 120
9.4 The effect of three outliers on the correlation coefficient 121
vii
TABLES
2.1 A summary review table extracted from a student dissertation 23–25
2.2 What is the difference between a good literature review and a poor one? 27
2.3 Checklist for a literature review 27/28
3.1 The differences in the four types of research design 45
4.1 Raw scores for height (cm) of a year group of children 48
4.2 Grouped frequency table for height of a year group of children 49
4.3 Raw scores for height (cm) of a year group of children and their teachers
and assistants 51
4.4 Reaction time data for cricketers and non-cricketers 54
4.5 Standard deviation calculations for women’s 100 metre times 56
5.1 Pattern for multiple comparisons 71
5.2 Selecting the right test of difference 76
7.1 Converting data to an ordinal scale 93
7.2 Skewed data converted to an ordinal scale 93
7.3 State anxiety for two different age groups of male gymnasts (scored on
an ordinal scale) 94
7.4 Ratings of perceived exhaustion during an aerobics class before and
after training 96
7.5 Ratings of perceived exhaustion during an aerobics class before and
after 10 and 20 weeks of training 96
7.6 Spearman’s rank order correlation coefficient 97
7.7 Frequency data for heart disease risk 98
7.8 Selecting the right non-parametric test 100
7.9 Non-parametric tests of difference 100
8.1 A poorly constructed table in comparison to a more effective and well
presented table 104
8.2 Visualising results of analysis 107
viii
PREFACE
This book is aimed primarily at undergraduate students who are undertaking a disser-
tation or other independent research project in the field of sport and exercise science. It
is designed to be most relevant to quantitative research in this field, which includes
physiological, biomechanical and psychological research. It is not our aim to provide
you with knowledge relating to these three disciplines, but rather to help you through
the process of conducting independent research within them. For undergraduate
students, this most commonly takes the form of a dissertation project, and this book
is designed to assist students producing a dissertation. However, it will also be relevant
to students involved in independent research or study modules.
The book is divided into 3 sections, which relate to different sections of a disserta-
tion. The first section (Chapters 1–3) focuses on principles of scientific study, devising a
research question and designing an experiment. This section is most useful when writ-
ing the literature review and developing a method for a dissertation. The second section
(Chapters 4–7) relates to data analysis and statistical testing and applies directly to the
results section of a dissertation. The final section (Chapters 8–10) is centred around
interpreting findings and drawing appropriate conclusions, which is obviously critical
for the construction of the discussion section of a dissertation. While the book enables
students to understand and interpret the results of statistical tests, it is not a statistical
software manual. Where necessary reference is made to an appropriate text, in relation
to performing statistical tests on SPSS (Coakes and Steed 2001). We have designed
this book to be as student-friendly as possible; as a consequence the use of complex
statistical formulae has been kept to a minimum, and common, subject-specific
examples are used to enhance understanding wherever possible.
The book seeks to provide guidance through the process of conducting independent
research, but there is no substitute for the advice and experience of an academic tutor.
We advise that this book be used in conjunction with regular tutorials with academic
members of staff at your institution.
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