dance of swords: us military assistance to saudi arabia, 1942-1964 dissertation

533 Pages·2002·6.84 MB·English

DANCE OF SWORDS:

U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE TO SAUDI ARABIA,
1942-1964

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy
in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

Bruce R. Nardulli, M.A.

* * * * *

The Ohio State University
2002

Dissertation Committee: Approved by

Professor Allan R. Millett, Adviser

Professor Peter L. Hahn _______________________
Adviser
Professor David Stebenne History Graduate Program
ABSTRACT
The United States and Saudi Arabia have a long and complex history of security
relations. These relations evolved under conditions in which both countries understood
and valued the need for cooperation, but also were aware of its limits and the dangers of
too close a partnership. U.S. security dealings with Saudi Arabia are an extreme, perhaps
unique, case of how security ties unfolded under conditions in which sensitivities to those
ties were always a central —oftentimes dominating—consideration. This was especially
true in the most delicate area of military assistance. Distinct patterns of behavior by the
two countries emerged as a result, patterns that continue to this day. This dissertation
examines the first twenty years of the U.S.-Saudi military assistance relationship. It
seeks to identify the principal factors responsible for how and why the military assistance
process evolved as it did, focusing on the objectives and constraints of both U.S. and
Saudi participants.
Drawing heavily on U.S. primary source materials, the research traces the history
of military assistance from 1942-1964. These years are explored using six time periods.
The first is from 1942 to 1945, tracing early political relations, security developments,
and the initiation of military activities and assistance by the U.S. during the war years.
The years 1945 to mid-1950 examine the transition from world war to cold war, and the
first serious long-term plans and actions between the two countries on military assistance.
The period from mid-1950 through 1953 focuses on efforts to formalize U.S.-Saudi
military assistance via written agreements, and to establish a regular military advisory
group inside the Kingdom. The years 1954-1956 are investigated against the backdrop of
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what was a key phase of Arab nationalism and British decline in the region, all while the
U.S. continued to seek containment of Soviet influence with Saudi assistance. The
period 1957-1960 focuses on the effects of key developments inside Saudi Arabia on the
military assistance process; the Saudi internal power struggle between King Saud and
Crown Prince Faisal. Last are the years 1961 through 1964, characterized as an era of
Arab polarization and direct security threats to the Kingdom, most notably the war in the
Yemen. That war brought into sharp relief the many tensions inherent in the military
assistance relationship. It also was the period of greatest internal conflict between Saud
and Faisal, culminating in King Saud’s removal from the throne. The work concludes
with a summary of the principal findings and patterns of behavior observed over the
entire period. It also addresses the historically important question (and enduring policy
issue) of how to evaluate the effectiveness of the overall military assistance undertaking
with Saudi Arabia.
The Sword Dance or ‘Ardha’ is the national dance of Saudi Arabia. It is used
here as a metaphor for the intricate moves required by the U.S. and Saudi Arabia in their
military dealings, and to denote the distinct patterns of behavior that emerged.
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DEDICATION

Dedicated to my wife Liliana, for her unrelenting support and who endured
far more than anyone should ask.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am indebted to many people who gave of their time, knowledge, and advice
throughout this endeavor.
I wish to thank Professors Peter Hahn and David Stebeene for their willingness to
take on this project as members of my dissertation committee. They were generous with
their time and guidance in significantly improving the final product. I would also like to
thank Professors Martha Garland and John Guilmartin for all of their assistance in
helping me move toward final completion of my Ph D. During a much earlier phase of
this effort, Drs. Williamson Murray and Charles Hermann provided freely of their time,
guidance, and support for which I am most appreciative.
A very special and deep dept of gratitude goes to Professor Allan Millett. In
addition to being my dissertation adviser, he has been a mentor throughout my academic
and professional career. His knowledge and expertise are exceeded only by his constant
support and willingness to keep this research moving forward. For this I will always
remain grateful.
At the History Graduate School I am most thankful to Joby Abernathy for all of
her assistance on the many administrative procedures associated with this effort. Beth
Russell of the Mershon Center also provided critical, oftentimes short notice,
communication and support throughout.
At the U.S. Naval War College, I would like to thank Dr. Kenneth Watman who,
along with Professor William Turcotte, provided me with the opportunity to both teach at
the War College and time to write while there. Ken was also party to many long
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discussions on the topic, and I benefited immensely from his sharp questioning and
insights.
Much of this research was conducted while at RAND. The corporation was
generous in providing flexibility and assistance along the way. Several RAND
colleagues were instrumental in providing all manner of support. Donna Betancourt,
David Chu, Natalie Crawford, Richard Darilek, Lynn Davis, Mike Hix, David Kassing
Tom McNaugher, Jim Quinlivan, and Lauri Zeman all invested in this undertaking. I
only hope they know what a difference they each made and my gratitude for all they have
done. I also thank Robin Davis who worked tirelessly to produce a polished final
document.
Finally, my greatest thanks are reserved for my parents, who made this entire
journey possible.
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VITA
August 14, 1956…………………………………………Born-Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

1981……………………………………………………..M.A. (First), War Studies, King’s
College, University of London

1998-1999………………………………………………Visiting Professor, U.S. Naval War
College, Newport Rhode Island

1986-Present…………………………………………….Member, professional research
staff, RAND

1984-1985………………………………………………Member, research staff,
Consortium for the Study of
Intelligence, National Strategy
Information Center

1982-1984………………………………………………Graduate Teaching and Research
Associate, Mershon Center, The
Ohio State University

PUBLICATIONS

1. Bruce R. Nardulli et. al., Disjointed War: Military Operations in Kosovo, 1999, MR-
1406-A (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND), 2002.

2. Bruce R. Nardulli, “A Future of Sustained Ground Operations,” RAND Review (Santa
Monica, Calif.: RAND), Summer 2002.

3. Bruce R. Nardulli and Thomas McNaugher, “Transforming the Army,” in Military
Transformation (Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press), 2002.

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4. John Gordon, Bruce Nardulli, and Walter Perry, “Task Force Hawk: The Importance
of Jointness,” Joint Force Quarterly (Washington, D.C.: Institute for National Strategic
Studies, National Defense University), Spring Issue, 2002.

5. Ian O. Lesser, Bruce R. Nardulli, and Lory A. Arghavan, “Sources of Conflict in the
Greater Middle East,” in Sources of Conflict in the 21st Century, RAND, MR-897-AF
(Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND), 1998.

6. Bruce Nardulli et al., Future Gulf Dynamics and U.S. Security, DB-106 (Santa Monica,
Calif.: RAND), 1994.

7. Project Air Force Assessment of Operation Desert Shield: The Buildup of Combat
Power, RAND/MR-356-AF, (Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND), 1994. Authored policy
section.

8. Bruce Nardulli, "European Defense and Stability in the New Era," Mershon Center,
Winter 1990, The Ohio State University.

9. Bruce Nardulli, "The View From Berlin: A Conference Report," Conventional Arms
Control and the Security of Europe, Westview Press, 1988

10. Bruce Nardulli, "Clausewitz and the Reorientation of Nuclear Strategy," Journal of
Strategic Studies, Vol. 5, No. 4, December 1982.

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: History
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Table of Contents

Abstract...............................................................................................................................ii
Dedication...........................................................................................................................iv
Acknowledgments...............................................................................................................v
Vita .................................................................................................................................vii
List of Maps......................................................................................................................xii
List of Tables...................................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 THE DANCE OF SWORDS.......................................................................1
Introduction..............................................................................................................1
Dance of Swords: The Genesis................................................................................2
The U.S. Security Lens: Four Broad Objectives....................................................9
Constraints on U.S. Objectives..............................................................................14
The Saudi Dimensions of Security........................................................................15
Historiography.......................................................................................................21
Organization and a Note on Terminology.............................................................40
CHAPTER 2 THE DANCE BEGINS: WORLD WAR TWO AND EMERGING
SECURITY TIES.....................................................................................................45
Overview................................................................................................................45
The Strategic Setting..............................................................................................47
Saudi Arabia Emerges As A U.S. Strategic Interest: Oil and Overflight..............49
Beginnings of the Military Assistance Relationship.............................................60
Observations on Early Patterns..............................................................................90
CHAPTER 3 DANCING AT A DISTANCE: POST-WAR THROUGH MID-1950....94
Strategic Setting: Cold War Onset And The Middle East.....................................94
Struggling For a Post-War Policy Toward the Kingdom......................................97
Elusive Pursuit: Dhahran, Palestine, And Military Assistance............................102
What Price Dhahran?...........................................................................................121
Bridging The Gap: Short Term Renewal And Military Survey..........................127
The Joint United States Survey Group to Saudi Arabia (JUSSGSA)..................134
After JUSSGSA: Still Playing For Time.............................................................156
Observations on Post-War Patterns.....................................................................165
CHAPTER 4 THE DANCE JOINED: MILITARY ASSISTANCE FORMALIZED,
1950-1953...............................................................................................................170
Strategic Setting: Korean War, Stirrings of Revolutionary Nationalism, and
Military Assistance.....................................................................................170
Establishing Saudi Eligibility For Reimbursable Military Assistance................172
Hard Bargaining: Finding An Acceptable Quid Pro Quo For Future Access.....181
Devil In The Details: Reaching Closure on the Military Assistance Program....192
Supply and Demand: The Growing Imbalance on Security................................198
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The Wheels Turn Slowly: Initiation of Military Assistance And Further
Negotiations Over the MAAG....................................................................202
Reaching Closure on MAAG, Stalling Out on Grant Military Assistance..........215
Death of An Era, Birth of a Power Struggle........................................................217
Observations on the Early 1950s.........................................................................221
CHAPTER 5 TROUBLED MOVEMENTS: MANEUVERING IN THE FACE
OF INTERNAL STRUGGLES AND RISING ARAB NATIONALISM,
1954-1956...............................................................................................................224
Strategic Setting...................................................................................................224
Early Days Under Saud: U.S. Military Assistance As A Test Of Support..........226
Royal Guard, National Guard, and Regular Armed Forces.................................234
The Road to Dhahran Renewal: Paved With Conflicting Pressures....................240
Initial Negotiations on Renewal..........................................................................264
The Suez Crisis and Dhahran..............................................................................277
Saudi Balancing Act: Supporting Nasser, Relying on the U.S............................283
Observations........................................................................................................285
CHAPTER 6 ADJUSTING TEMPO: RESPONDING TO SHIFTING
PRIORITIES AND PARTNERS, 1957-1960........................................................289
Strategic Setting...................................................................................................289
The King’s Visit and Opening Positions.............................................................290
The 1380 Plan: Centerpiece of the Negotiations.................................................298
Struggling for Closure.........................................................................................305
Formal Agreement and Early Implementation....................................................311
The Building Crisis for Saud: Tensions Over Syria, Emergence
of the UAR, and Palace Intrigue.................................................................320
Faisal’s Priorities and the Hiatus in Military Assistance.....................................328
Caught in the Middle: USMTM’s Growing Military Difficulties
and Mounting Political Role.......................................................................335
Resistance to Faisal and His Reforms.................................................................345
Observations........................................................................................................354
CHAPTER 7 U.S. MILITARY ASSISTANCE IN THE CRUCIBLE:
CONFLICT IN THE YEMEN...............................................................................359
Strategic Setting: Cold War With A Difference..................................................359
Early Days And Differences Under Kennedy.....................................................362
Dust-Up Over Kuwait..........................................................................................368
Next Steps on Dhahran, USMTM and Military Assistance................................372
Outbreak of the War in the Yemen......................................................................379
Washington’s Response to Early Military Developments...................................385
Fighting From Weakness: Faisal’s Response......................................................389
Measured Reassurances From Washington.........................................................393
Growing Saudi Pressure for U.S. Military Assistance........................................399
Further Escalation and New Diplomatic Efforts: The Bunker Mission..............407
Troubled Deployment: The Military and Political Complications
Surrounding Operation ‘Hard Surface’......................................................415
Enduring U.S. Differences Over the Future of Hard Surface..............................429
The Johnson Administration Inherits the Yemen Headache...............................432
The U.S. Air Defense Survey..............................................................................440
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