Table Of ContentCurrent Trends and Future
Developments on (Bio-)
Membranes
Current Trends and Future
Developments on (Bio-)
Membranes
Membrane Technologies in Environmental
Protection and Public Health: Challenges and
Opportunities
Edited by
Angelo Basile
Dept. of Engin., Univ. Campus Bio-medical, Rome, Italy
Mario Gensini
Institute on Membrane Technology (ITM-CNR), Rende, CS, Italy
Ivo Allegrini
ENVINT srl, Montopoli di Sabina, RI, Italy
Alberto Figoli
Institute on Membrane Technology, National Research Council of Italy
(ITM-CNR), Rende, CS, Italy
List of contributors
Nicoletta Ademollo Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Rome, Italy
Ivo Allegrini ENVINT srl, MontopolidiSabina, RI, Italy
Carmine Apollaro Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences (DIBEST), University of
Calabria (UniCAL),Arcavacata diRende, Calabria,Italy
A.H. Avci Department of Environmental Engineering, Universityof Calabria,Rende,Italy
Rau´l Bahamonde Soria Renewable Energy Laboratory, Faculty of Chemical Sciences, Central
University of Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador; Materials & Process Engineering (iMMC-IMAP),
UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve,Belgium
Warren R.L. Cairns Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Venice-Mestre, Veneto, Italy; Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics
(DAIS),Ca’FoscariUniversityof Venice (UniVE),Venice-Mestre, Veneto,Italy
Roberto Castro-Mun˜oz Department of Process Engineering and Chemical Technology, Faculty of
Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland; Tecnologico de Monterrey, San
Antonio Buenavista, Toluca de Lerdo, Mexico; Department of Sanitary Engineering, Faculty of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, GdanskUniversity ofTechnology,Gdansk, Poland
Olga Cavoura Department of Public Health Policy, School of Public Health, University of West
Attica, Athens,Greece
Gianfranco Di Gennaro Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of
Calabria, Rende, Calabria,Italy
Alberto Figoli Institute on Membrane Technology, National Research Council of Italy (ITM-CNR),
Rende,CS,Italy
Ilaria Fuoco Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences (DIBEST), University of
Calabria (UniCAL),Arcavacata diRende, Calabria,Italy
Francesco Galiano Institute on MembraneTechnology, National Research Council ofItaly
(ITM-CNR), Rende, CS, Italy
Antonietta Ianniello CNR,Institute ofAtmospheric PollutionResearch, Rome, Italy
Adolfo Iulianelli Institute onMembraneTechnology,NationalResearchCouncilofItaly(ITM-CNR),
Rende,CS,Italy
Tianling Li Collaborative Innovation Centre of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment
Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution
Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information
Science &Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China
xi
xii List of contributors
Francesca Licata Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”,
Catanzaro,Calabria, Italy
Patricia Luis Materials & Process Engineering (iMMC-IMAP), UCLouvain, Louvain-la-Neuve,
Belgium
M. Malankowska Institute of Nanoscience and Materials of Aragon (INMA), CSIC-University of
Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain; Chemical and Environmental Engineering Department, University of
Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
Matteo Manisco Institute on Membrane Technology, National Research Council of Italy (ITM-CNR),
Rende,CS,Italy
S. Mondal LAQV/Requimte, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology,
NOVAUniversity ofLisbon, Caparica,Portugal
Carmelo G.A. Nobile Department of Pharmacy, Health and Nutritional Sciences, University of
Calabria, Rende, Calabria,Italy
Rosa Papadopoli Department of Health Sciences, University of Catanzaro “Magna Graecia”,
Catanzaro,Calabria, Italy
Luisa Patrolecco Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Rome, Italy
Sarah Pizzini Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR), Venice,
Italy; Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics (DAIS), Ca’ Foscari
University ofVenice (UniVE), Venice, Italy
Stefano Polesello Water Research Institute (IRSA), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Brugherio, Italy
Antonio Procopio Department of Health Sciences, University Magna Graecia (UMG), Catanzaro,
Calabria, Italy
Jasmin Rauseo Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Rome, Italy
Francesca Russo Institute on MembraneTechnology, National ResearchCouncilof Italy
(ITM-CNR),Rende,CS, Italy
S. Santoro Department ofEnvironmentalEngineering,University ofCalabria, Rende, Italy
Francesca Spataro Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Rome, Italy
U.T. Syed LAQV/Requimte, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Technology,
NOVAUniversity ofLisbon, Caparica,Portugal
L. Upadhyaya King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Biological and
Environmental Science and Engineering Division (BESE), Advanced Membranes and Porous
Materials Center (AMPM),Thuwal, SaudiArabia
Federica Valentini Department ofChemistry, UniversityofRome 2 TorVergata,Rome, Italy
Massimiliano Varde` Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research Council of Italy (CNR),
Venice, Italy; Department of Environmental Sciences, Informatics and Statistics (DAIS), Ca’ Foscari
University of Venice (UniVE), Venice, Italy; Institute of Polar Sciences (ISP), National Research
Council of Italy (CNR), Venice-Mestre, Veneto, Italy; Department of Environmental Sciences,
Informatics and Statistics (DAIS), Ca’ Foscari University of Venice (UniVE), Venice-Mestre,
Veneto, Italy
List of contributors xiii
Giovanni Vespasiano Department of Biology, Ecology and Earth Sciences (DIBEST), University
of Calabria(UniCAL), ArcavacatadiRende,Calabria, Italy
Zhengguo Wang Collaborative Innovation Centre of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment
Technology, Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution
Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information
Science &Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, P.R. China
Chao Xing Centre for Clean Environment and Energy, School of Environment and Science, Gold
Coast Campus,GriffithUniversity,Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
Shanqing Zhang Centre for Clean Environment and Energy, School of Environment and Science,
Gold Coast Campus, GriffithUniversity,Gold Coast,QLD, Australia
Ming Zhou Centre for Clean Environment and Energy, School of Environment and Science, Gold
Coast Campus,GriffithUniversity,Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
Contents
List of contributors................................................................................................xi
Preface.................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1:Environmental air pollution: an anthropogenic or a natural issue?............ 1
Ivo Allegrini, Antonietta Ianniello and Federica Valentini
1.1 Introduction...........................................................................................................1
1.2 Most significant pollutants.....................................................................................6
1.2.1 Sulfur dioxide (SO )...................................................................................6
2
1.2.2 Nitrogen oxides (NO )................................................................................7
x
1.2.3 Ammonia (NH ).........................................................................................8
3
1.2.4 Volatile organic compounds........................................................................8
1.2.5 Ozone (O ) and photochemical pollution..................................................14
3
1.3 The spatial scales of air pollution: emissions.......................................................21
1.4 Evolution of pollutants in the atmosphere............................................................25
1.5 Air pollution and polar regions............................................................................27
1.5.1 Renitrification of polar atmosphere...........................................................28
1.5.2 Role of halogens and mercury..................................................................31
1.6 Conclusions.........................................................................................................34
Acronyms.....................................................................................................................34
List of symbols............................................................................................................35
References...................................................................................................................35
Chapter 2:Environmental air pollution: near-source air pollution............................ 39
Ivo Allegrini, Antonietta Ianniello and Federica Valentini
2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................39
2.2 Near-source chemical and physical parameters....................................................40
2.3 Thermal structure of the troposphere...................................................................43
2.4 Elevated emission sources...................................................................................46
v
vi Contents
2.5 The use of radon in air pollution data interpretation............................................49
2.6 Atmospheric stability and secondary pollutants...................................................54
2.7 Advances in air pollution monitoring...................................................................60
2.7.1 Saturation monitoring...............................................................................60
2.7.2 Internet of Things and Information Communication
Technologies for sensors...........................................................................64
2.7.3 A modern monitoring network..................................................................70
2.8 Conclusions.........................................................................................................73
List of acronyms..........................................................................................................74
List of symbols............................................................................................................74
References...................................................................................................................74
Chapter 3:The environmental pollution’s influence on public health:
general principles and case studies....................................................... 77
Gianfranco Di Gennaro, Rosa Papadopoli, Francesca Licata and
Carmelo G.A. Nobile
3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................77
3.2 Air pollution........................................................................................................78
3.3 Water pollution....................................................................................................81
3.4 Noise pollution....................................................................................................84
3.5 Soil pollution.......................................................................................................86
3.6 Other forms of pollution......................................................................................87
3.7 Case studies.........................................................................................................88
3.8 Conclusions and future trends..............................................................................92
List of acronyms..........................................................................................................93
References...................................................................................................................93
Chapter 4:Environmental monitoring and membrane technologies:
a possible marriage? ..........................................................................101
Tianling Li, Ming Zhou, Zhengguo Wang, Chao Xing and Shanqing Zhang
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................101
4.2 Membrane-based monitoring methods...............................................................104
4.2.1 Direct sampling and detection.................................................................104
4.2.2 Passive sampling and detection...............................................................107
4.3 Environmental applications................................................................................110
4.3.1 Water environment.................................................................................110
4.3.2 Soil environment.....................................................................................115
4.3.3 Atmospheric environment.......................................................................116
4.4 Conclusions and future trends............................................................................123
Contents vii
Acknowledgment.......................................................................................................125
Acronyms...................................................................................................................125
Symbols.....................................................................................................................125
References.................................................................................................................125
Chapter 5:Potentially toxic elements (As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb),
their provenance and removal from potable and wastewaters................137
Warren R.L. Cairns, Carmine Apollaro, Ilaria Fuoco, Giovanni Vespasiano,
Antonio Procopio, Olga Cavoura and Massimiliano Varde`
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................137
5.1.1 General overview....................................................................................137
5.1.2 Arsenic...................................................................................................138
5.1.3 Cadmium................................................................................................139
5.1.4 Chromium...............................................................................................141
5.1.5 Mercury..................................................................................................142
5.1.6 Lead........................................................................................................144
5.2 Toxicity of As, Cd, Cr, Hg, and Pb....................................................................146
5.2.1 Arsenic...................................................................................................147
5.2.2 Cadmium................................................................................................148
5.2.3 Chromium...............................................................................................149
5.2.4 Mercury..................................................................................................150
5.2.5 Lead........................................................................................................152
5.2.6 Guidelines limit and health risk assessment approach of
selected potentially toxic elements..........................................................153
5.3 Metal removal from water.................................................................................157
5.3.1 Metal removal in municipal wastewater treatment works........................158
5.3.2 Enhanced elemental removal processes...................................................159
5.3.3 Case studies............................................................................................160
5.3.4 Effectiveness of current treatment works................................................165
5.4 Conclusions and future trends............................................................................167
List of acronyms........................................................................................................168
List of symbols..........................................................................................................168
References.................................................................................................................169
Chapter 6:Some organic compounds in potable water: the PFASs,
EDCs and PPCPs issue......................................................................183
Luisa Patrolecco, Jasmin Rauseo, Nicoletta Ademollo, Stefano Polesello,
Massimiliano Varde`, Sarah Pizzini and Francesca Spataro
6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................183
viii Contents
6.2 International directives on surface and drinking waters.....................................184
6.3 Sources, environmental dynamics, and final fate...............................................188
6.3.1 Pharmaceuticals......................................................................................189
6.3.2 Personal care products............................................................................192
6.3.3 Alkylphenols and Bisphenol A................................................................194
6.3.4 PAHs, PBDEs, PCBs, and PCDD/Fs.......................................................195
6.3.5 Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances........................................................197
6.4 Environmental and ecosystem effects................................................................198
6.5 Drinking water treatment plants.........................................................................202
6.6 Conclusions and future trends............................................................................209
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................210
List of acronyms........................................................................................................210
References.................................................................................................................211
Chapter 7: Current nanocomposite membranes as a tool for organic
compounds remediation in potable waters............................................229
Roberto Castro-Mun˜oz
7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................229
7.2 Background of membrane technologies used in water remediation....................230
7.3 Recent developments in novel nanocomposite membrane for organic
compounds and pollutants removal from water..................................................233
7.4 Conclusion and future trends.............................................................................243
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................244
List of acronyms........................................................................................................244
References.................................................................................................................245
Further reading...........................................................................................................254
Chapter 8:Membranes for air cleaning................................................................255
Francesca Russo, Matteo Manisco, Adolfo Iulianelli,
Roberto Castro-Mun˜oz, Francesco Galiano and Alberto Figoli
8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................255
8.2 Membranes for air cleaning...............................................................................257
8.3 Polymeric membrane preparation for air cleaning..............................................260
8.3.1 Phase inversion.......................................................................................260
8.3.2 Electrospinning technique.......................................................................262
8.3.3 Polymeric coating...................................................................................264
8.4 Membrane materials for air cleaning.................................................................265
