Table Of ContentCURRENT
DEVELOPMENTS IN
BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND
BIOENGINEERING
SeriesEditor
AshokPandey
SustainabilityCluster,SchoolofEngineering,UniversityofPetroleumandEnergyStudies,Dehradun,
Uttarakhand,India;
CentreforInnovationandTranslationalResearch,CSIR-IndianInstituteofToxicologyResearch,
Lucknow,India;
CentreforEnergyandEnvironmentalSustainability,Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
CURRENT
DEVELOPMENTS IN
BIOTECHNOLOGY
AND
BIOENGINEERING
Advances in Composting and
Vermicomposting Technology
Editedby
Mukesh Kumar Awasthi
CollegeofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment,NorthwestA&FUniversity,
Yangling,ShaanxiProvince,China
Zengqiang Zhang
CollegeofNaturalResourcesandEnvironment,NorthwestA&FUniversity,
Yangling,Shaanxi,PRChina
Ashok Pandey
SustainabilityCluster,SchoolofEngineering,UniversityofPetroleumand
EnergyStudies,Dehradun,Uttarakhand,India;CentreforInnovationand
TranslationalResearch,CSIR-IndianInstituteofToxicologyResearch,
Lucknow,India;CentreforEnergyandEnvironmentalSustainability,
Lucknow,UttarPradesh,India
Elsevier
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Contents
Contributors xi 2.2 Globalorganicwaste(OW)production 30
Preface xv 2.3 Organicwastemanagementtechniques 30
2.4 Vermicompostingtechnique 31
1. Introduction:Trendsincompostingand 2.5 Productsofvermicompostingandtheiruses 33
2.5.1 Vermicompost 33
vermicompostingtechnologies 1
2.5.2 Earthworms 35
YuwenZhou,HongLiu,HongChen,SanjeevKumarAwasthi, 2.6 Vermicompostingforthemanagementof
RaveendranSindhu,ParameswaranBinod,AshokPandeyand organicwaste 37
MukeshKumarAwasthi
2.6.1 Livestockorganicwaste 37
2.6.2 Domesticorganicwastes 37
1.1 Introduction 1
2.6.3 Agriculturalorganicwaste 46
1.2 Recentadvancementofcompostingandvermi-
2.6.4 Municipalsolidwaste 47
compostingtechnologies 3
2.6.5 Industrialwaste(organicfraction) 48
1.3 Technology improvement; traditional vs mod-
2.7 Recommendationsandlimitationsof
erncomposting 6
vermicompostingtechnology 49
1.3.1 Roleofadditive 6
2.8 Conclusionandprospective 50
1.3.2 Roleofbulkingagent 8
References 50
1.3.3 Microbialcommunitydriving
composting 8
3. Innovationsindesignandoperationof
1.3.4 Humification 10
1.4 Effects of earthworms to improve rate of com- aerationdevicesforcompostingand
postingandcompostquality 11 vermicomposting 57
1.5 Dissipation pathways and mechanism of com-
YuminDuan,JianfengYang,MukeshKumarAwasthi,AshokPandey
postingxandvermicomposting 13
andHuikeLi
1.5.1 Resistantgenesreduction 13
1.5.2 Pathogenicmicrobes’reduction 14 3.1 Introduction 57
1.5.3 Greenhousegasesmitigationandnutri- 3.2 Compostingsystemregardingaeration
entconservation 15 devices 60
1.6 Global compost quality assessment in terms of 3.2.1 Passivelyaeratedcomposting
compostingandvermicomposting 16 system 62
1.7 Researchlimitations 17 3.2.2 Activelyaeratedcomposting
1.8 Conclusionsandperspectives 18 system 64
Acknowledgment 19 3.2.3 Vermicompostingcompostingdevice
References 19 system 68
3.2.4 Emergingdevicesandpromisingareasfor
2. Vermicompostingtechnologyfororganic techniquedevelopment 70
wastemanagement 29 3.3 Applicationandlimitationsofcompostingand
vermicomposting 72
KavitaSharmaandV.K.Garg
3.4 Conclusionsandprospectives 74
Acknowledgments 74
2.1 Introduction 29
References 75
v
vi
Contents
4. Compostingsystemandmature 5.4.4 Applicationanddeficiencyofcompost-
end-productsproduction 81 ing technology in circular economy
117
RanXiaoandTaoLiu
5.5 Conclusionsandperspectives 118
Acknowledgments 118
4.1 Introduction 81
References 118
4.2 Compostingtechniquesanddesignofcompost-
ingfacilities 82
6. Roleofbulkingagentsandadditiveon
4.2.1 Compostingmethods 82
4.2.2 Compostingprocess 84 composting 127
4.2.3 Layoutofacompostingfacility 86
XiunaRen,MinnaJiao,XingChen,TaoLiu,YueZhangand
4.3 Compostmaturity 86 ZengqiangZhang
4.3.1 Compostmaturityindexes 87
4.4 Improved composting system for mature com- 6.1 Introduction 127
postproduction 90 6.2 Theapplicationofbulkingagentsandadditive
4.4.1 Organicmatterdegradationthrough inthecomposting 128
composting 90 6.2.1 Types and sources of bulking agents
4.4.2 Factorsaffectingthecomposting 128
process 91 6.2.2 Typesofadditives 128
4.4.3 Improved composting for mature com- 6.2.3 The necessity of utilization of bulking
postproduct 92 agentandadditive 132
4.3.2 Membrane-coveredaerobic 6.3 Theroleofbulkingagentduringcomposting
composting 93 process 132
4.4 Conclusionsandperspectives 94 6.3.1 The role of bulking agent on physical
Acknowledgments 95 propertiesofcomposting 132
References 95 6.3.2 The role of bulking agent on chemical
characterizationofcomposting 133
5. Modelingandoptimizationof 6.3.3 The role of bulking agent on microbial
compostingtechnology 97 activityofcomposting 134
6.4 Theroleofadditiveoncomposting 135
ZhaoyuWang,JianwenXie,YeHan,HaoranZhao,MengxiangZhao 6.4.1 Theroleofadditiveonphysicalproper-
andQuanWang
tiesofcomposting 135
6.4.2 Theroleofadditiveonchemicalcharac-
5.1 Introduction 97
terizationofcomposting 136
5.2 Principlesofmodelingofcomposting
6.4.3 Theroleofadditiveonmicrobialactivity
technology 98
ofcomposting 137
5.2.1 Physicalmodel 98
6.5 Conclusionsandperspectives 138
5.2.2 Mathematicalmodel 100
References 139
5.2.3 Neuralnetworkmodel 103
5.3 Modellingthecompostingprocess 106
7. Designprinciplesofsustainable
5.3.1 Substratedegradation 106
5.3.2 Massbalance 108 compostingandrecoveryofvaluefrom
5.3.3 Thermalbalance 111 compost 143
5.3.4 Limitationandoptimizationofcompost-
ChukwunonyeEzeah,JoachimC.OsuagwuandIbukunM.Adesiyan
ingmodels 112
5.4 Requirementsofcompostingmodelsforpredic- 7.1 Introduction 143
tionofenvironmentaleffects 112 7.2 Functionofcompostinsoil 144
5.4.1 Organicpollutants 112 7.2.1 Compostingprocess 144
5.4.2 Greenhousegases 114 7.2.2 Processcontrolincomposting 145
5.4.3 Compostquality 116
vii
Contents
7.3 Factorsaffectingsustainablecomposting 146 8.8 Microbesinvolvedincomposting 176
7.3.1 Microbialactivities 146 8.8.1 Bacteria 177
7.3.2 Physicochemicalfactors 149 8.8.2 Fungi 178
7.3.3 Frequencyofcompostturning 149 8.8.3 Basidiomycetes 178
7.3.4 Temperature 150 8.8.4 Ascomycota 178
7.3.5 C/Nratio 150 8.8.5 Actinomycetes 179
7.3.6 Moisturecontent 151 8.8.6 Archaeal 180
7.3.7 Electricalconductivity(EC) 151 8.8.7 Pathogens 182
7.3.8 Aeration 152 8.9 Impactofphysicochemicalparameterson
7.3.9 CompostpH 152 microbialactivity 184
7.3.10 Socialfactor 153 8.9.1 Temperature 184
7.4 Feedstockcharacteristics 153 8.9.2 Substrates 188
7.5 Bulkingmaterials 154 8.9.3 Moisturecontent 189
7.6 Compostingfacilitiesdesign 154 8.9.4 Aeration 189
7.6.1 Designconsiderations 157 8.9.5 pH 190
7.6.2 Scopeofdesign 157 8.10 Microbesdischargeextracellularproteinsduring
7.7 Designspecifications 157 composting 191
7.7.1 Windrows 158 8.10.1 Proteases 192
7.7.2 Bincomposting 162 8.10.2 Cellulasesandhemicellulases 192
7.8 Conclusionsandperspectives 163 8.10.3 Otherproteinsinvolvedduring
References 164 composting 193
8.11 Microbialcommunitysuccessionduring
8. Roleofmicrobesandmicrobialdynamics composting 194
duringcomposting 169 8.11.1 Causesofsuccession 195
8.11.2 Processofsuccession 195
PeiyuanWang,SiqiHanandYanbingLin
8.11.3 Theroleofhigh-temperature
compost 198
8.1 Introduction 169
8.12 Compostingacceleratingmicrobial
8.2 Productionandcharacteristicsof
additives 198
solidwaste 170
8.12.1 Typesandsourcesofmicrobial
8.2.1 Industrialsolidwaste 170
additives 199
8.2.2 Municipalwaste 170
8.12.2 Effectofmicrobialadditiononcompost-
8.2.3 Agriculturalwaste 171
ingprocess 199
8.3 Characterizationofsolidwaste 171
8.13 Techniquesusedinprofilingmicrobialcommu-
8.4 Pollutionhazards,treatment,andmanagement
nityduringcomposting 202
ofsolidwaste 171
8.13.1 16S/18SrRNA/DNAsequenceanalysis
8.4.1 Landandsoilpollution 171
technique 202
8.4.2 Waterpollution 172
8.13.2 Molecular hybridization technique
8.4.3 Atmosphericpollution 172
204
8.5 Treatmentofsolidwaste 172
8.13.3 Molecularmarkertechniques 206
8.5.1 Incineration 172
8.13.4 Real-timefluorescentquantitativePCR
8.5.2 Composting 172
technique(RT-qPCR) 210
8.6 Utilizationofsolidwaste 173
8.14 Conclusionsandperspectives 211
8.6.1 Compostandcompostingprocess 173
References 212
8.6.2 Compost treatment and differences
175
9. Antibioticresiduesandtheeffectson
8.7 Regulatory framework for industrial compost
176 compostingprocess 221
HuanyuBao,QiqiFuandZifanWang
viii
Contents
9.1 Introduction 221 10.3.2 The influence of garbage classification
9.2 Physicochemicalpropertiesandsourceof oncompostingindustry 255
antibiotics 222 10.3.3 Solidorganicwasteaerobiccomposting
9.2.1 Tetracyclines 222 costislow 256
9.2.2 Macrolides 227 10.3.4 Theend-productshavemuchbenefitfor
9.2.3 Fluoroquinolones 227 thesoil 256
9.2.4 Sulfonamides 227 10.4 The critical aspects of composting process im-
9.3 Antibioticresiduesinsolidwastes 228 provement towards a novel clean composting
9.4 Thefateofantibioticsduringcomposting 229 strategy 257
9.4.1 Thereductionofantibioticsincompost- 10.4.1 Optimization of composting regime
ing 229 257
9.4.2 Removalmechanismofantibioticsdur- 10.4.2 Thepopularityofbulkingagentsand
ingcomposting 235 additives 258
9.4.3 Theeffectofantibioticonthecompost- 10.4.3 Theapplicationofstatistical
ingprocess 237 approach 259
9.5 Theacutethreatenofantibiotic:antibioticre- 10.5 Thebenefitsofcompostlandapplication 260
sistance(AR) 239 10.5.1 Changesinphysicochemicaland
9.5.1 The abundance of ARGs in different biologicalpropertiesofsoil 260
solidwaste 239 10.5.2 Impact of compost land application on
9.5.2 The ARGs changes during composting climatechange 261
process 241 10.6 Economic feasibility analysis of composting
9.5.3 TheeffectsofantibioticsonARGspro- 261
fileduringcomposting 241 10.7 Challengesforcompostingvis-à-viscircular
9.6 Conclusionsandperspectives 242 bioeconomy 262
References 243 10.8 Conclusionsandperspectives 263
Acknowledgment 264
10. Challengesandopportunitiesassociated References 264
withcompostinganditsend-products
11. Life-cycleassessmentincomposting
application 249
technology 269
TaoLiu,XiunaRen,MinnaJiao,XingChen,YueZhang,
ShivpalVermaandZengqiangZhang YangyangLi,RuiWang,YiranZhang,SumengJia,WenhaiLuoand
GuoxueLi
10.1 Introduction 249
10.2 Thechallengeswithcomposting 250 11.1 Introduction 269
10.2.1 Odorousgasemission 250 11.1.1 Life-cycleassessment(LCA)
10.2.2 Greenhousegasemission 251 methodology 270
10.2.3 Heavymetalspassivation 251 11.1.2 Life-cycleenvironmental
10.2.4 Inactivation of pathogenic microorgan- assessment 282
isms 253 11.2 Life-cycleenvironmentalconsequences 283
10.2.5 Theinactivationofweedseeds 254 11.2.1 Globalwarmingpotential 283
10.2.6 Antibiotic and resistance gene control 11.2.2 Acidificationpotential 284
254 11.2.3 Eutrophicationpotential 285
10.2.7 Role of composting for attenuation of 11.3 Conclusionsandperspectives 289
persistent organic and inorganic com- References 289
pounds 254
10.3 Theopportunitieswithcomposting 255 12. Economicandqualityevaluationof
10.3.1 The organic waste comes from a wide compostingtechnologies 295
rangeofresourcesandamountsare
JahangeerQuadar,AnuB.Chowdhary,RahilDutta,
huge 255
DeachenAngmo,SharanpreetSingh,JaswinderSingh,
SatveerSingh,SoubamI.Kumar,BhawanaSohalandAdarshP.Vig
ix
Contents
12.1 Introduction 295 portion of the waste produced on the
12.2 Composting 297 farm 312
12.3 Historyofcomposting 298 12.9.9 Factorsthatmayaffectpeople’sadoption
12.4 Processofcomposting 298 ofcompostingproducts 312
12.5 Compostingmethods 299 12.10 Conclusionsandperspectives 313
12.6 Microbiologyofcomposting 301 References 313
12.7 Factorsaffectingcomposting 302
12.7.1 Oxygen 303 13. Businessmodelsofcompostingfora
12.7.2 Moisture 303 circulareconomy 319
12.7.3 Temperature 303
Florin-ConstantinMihai,RamónPlana,JosebaS.Arizmendiarrieta
12.7.4 pH 303
andIgnacioIrigoyen
12.7.5 C:Nratio 304
12.8 Compostevaluation 304 13.1 Introduction 319
12.8.1 Environmentalbenefitsof 13.2 Compostingandcircularbusinesspractices
composting 304 inSpain 320
12.8.2 Compostmarketingandeconomy 306 13.2.1 Circulareconomyoforganicwastesand
12.9 Problemsassociatedwithcommercialization theireffectsonthelocalsociety 320
309 13.2.2 Local synergies of circular economy
12.9.1 Formunicipalsolidwaste,heavymetals throughcomposting 321
contentisoneofthemostcontroversial 13.3 Composting and circular business practices in
aspectsincompostqualityandhasbeen Romania 339
extensivelyresearched 310 13.3.1 Pilotproject“Dobroiestiiscomposting”
12.9.2 Additionally, due to high salt content, –asource-separatedcampaignforgreen
landapplicationofsomecompostcanre- waste (food waste and garden waste)
sult in increased electrical conductivity 340
(EC),whichcanlimitseedlingefficiency 13.3.2 Bio&co social enterprise – project by
310 “AteliereFaraFrontiere” 340
12.9.3 Phytotoxic substances of fresh compost 13.4 Conclusionsandperspectives 342
can injure plant, as fresh compost can References 342
haveacidssuchasacetic,propionicand
isovalericacids 310 14. Enablingenvironmentsanitationand
12.9.4 Thelaboratoryandon-sitetestsaredone
financingbycompostingtechnologies 345
to determine the stability and maturity
ofbiowastecompostsduringthecuring JishaoJiang,YangWang,DouYuandRuiHou
process 310
14.1 Introduction 345
12.9.5 Aspeoplemoveclosertoexistingtreat-
14.2 Sanitary problems of conventional composting
ment plants; odor is becoming a more
346
sensitiveproblem 311
14.2.1 Lack of supervision and sound qual-
12.9.6 Anaerobicprocessesaidinthedecompo-
ity standards for industrial composting
sitionofcompostingmaterialsingeneral
346
311
14.2.2 Adverse effects of traditional compost-
12.9.7 In addition to oxygen, the organisms
ingontheenvironmentandcrops 349
need moisture, a balance of nutrients,
14.2.3 Backward technology and equipment
and favorable temperatures, and pH
andlowmanagementlevel 350
311
14.2.4 Thenarrowuseofcompostproductsand
12.9.8 Agriculturalwastessuchasleaves,plant
lowmarketacceptance 351
parts,anddeadplantsaccountforalarge
