Table Of ContentMaps and Figures
MAPS
. Perspectives:Euro-,American-,Asian-Centeredness
. CulturalRegions,thCentury
. Circuitsoftheth-CenturyWorldSystem
. Afro-EurasianTradeRoutes,th–thCenturiesI
. Afro-EurasianTradeRoutes,th–thCenturiesII
. MigrationsofDispersal,State-Building,andColonizationbefore
. WarfaringMercenariesandArmies
. PeasantMobilityandMarketConnections
. Selectedth-CenturyArtisans’Migrations
. Long-DistancePilgrimagetoSantiagodeCompostela,thand
thCenturies
. MoriscosandChristiansinValenciabetweenand
. JewishExpulsions,th–thCenturies,andGypsyMigrations,th–th
Centuries
. ChristianFlightandMigrations
. MigrationandtheOttomanEmpire,–
. Europe:Universities,th–thCenturies,andMajorPolitical
Regions,
. ‘‘EuropeFindstheLargerWorld,’’thtoEarlythCenturies
. AfricanPeoplesin
. TradeRoutesattheEndofthethCentury
. AfricanTradeandMigrationaround
. FromManyPeoplestoGenericChattelSlaves
. IndianHinduandArabMuslimContacttoSoutheastAsia,
th–thCenturies
. TheTradeEmporiaoftheIndianOcean,–
. CulturesoftheIndianSubcontinent
. ChineseMigrationsandtheChineseDiaspora
. TheArmenianDiaspora,th–thCenturies
. PeoplesoftheAmericasinthethCentury
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. Mediterranean,Transatlantic,andTranspacificVoyaging
. ZonesofCulturalConflictandContact,thCentury
. TheCommercialFurEmpires
. FromtheEuro-CulturalZonesoftotheDispossessionof
FirstNations,
. Origins:TheEasternAtlanticRim,th–thCenturies
. TheWesternAtlanticRim:DestinationsandShiftingZonesofEncounter
to
. SouthAfrica:Peoples,CapeColony,Migrations
. Latin–African–NativeAmericanMigrations
. RelativeSizeofSlaveImportsduringtheWholePeriodoftheAtlanticTrade
byDestinationandSelectedEthnicOrigins
. EmpireswithColoniesandZonesofEncounter/Borderlands,
. EuropeanRuralMigrations,th–thCenturies
. EuropeanLaborMigrationSystems,–
. PopulationDensityintheEarlythCentury
. Long-DistanceTradeRoutesinEastCentralEurope,Kraków,
–
. ExpansionofRussia,th–thCenturies
. MigrationsofCentralAsianPeoples,th–thCenturies
. SettlementandOriginofRussian-Germans,–
. Siberia,theRussianFarEast,andAlaska,thCentury
. PolandandtheJewishPaleofSettlement
. DestinationsofMigrantHarvestLaborinCentralEurope,s–s
. MigrationsfromtheEuropeanPeripherytotheCoresoftheAtlantic
Economies,s–
. MigrationtoNorthAmerica,–,andBiculturalRegions
. (In)dependentLatinAmerica:Migration,Intervention,Investment
. PrincipalOverseasMigrations,s–,ofAsianIndenturedand
FreeMigrants
. EastAsia:InternalMigrationandEmigration,s–s
. PeoplesoftheSouthernChineseEmigrationProvinces
. SouthAsia:PopulationDensityandEmigration
. SouthAsia:Inter-ProvincialMigration,
. Africa,c.andc.
. EmpiresandDiasporas
. PopulationTransfer,Migration,andFlightinEurope,–
. ForcedLaborinGermanyandtheSovietUnion,s–s
. EuropeanFlight,Deportations,andResettlement,–
. EastAsia:ExpansionofJapan,Flight,andForcedLabor
. ThePioneerFringeinthes
. JewishandPalestinianFlightandMigrationsto
. LaborSegregationinandMigrationtoSouthAfrica,s
xiv MapsandFigures
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. MajorLaborandRefugeeMigrations,s–s
. MajorRefugeeMigrationsinthes
. EuropeanandTransatlanticMigrations
. MigrationtoandintheAmericas
. Intra-Asian,SouthPacific,andTranspacificMigrations
. NorthAfricanandPersianGulfMigrations
. Intra-AfricanLaborandRefugeeMigrations
. EasternEuropeanMigrations,esp.after
FIGURES
. EstimatedEuropeanPopulations,–
. AnnualWorkCyclesofIrishandWestphalianTenantFarmWorker
HouseholdsandofLaborersandSmallFarmersinNorthHolland,
th–thCenturies
. MigrationtoAsianRussia,–,andPercentageofExilesand
Prisoners,–
. DistributionofJewishPopulationinEurope,–
MapsandFigures xv
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Acknowledgments and Dedication
AsastudentIwasfortunatetoexperiencethefascinatingsandswhennew
questionswereasked,whenthe‘‘underdogs’’or‘‘workingclasses’’wereplacedinthe
centerofattention.LikeothereageryoungmenIlaterrealizedthatwomenhadgot-
tenlostinmen’shistoriography.Throughoutmyacademiccareerwomeninscholar-
shiphavepersistentlyaskedquestionsandimprovedmyapproachestoagendered
world,thewomenamongmystudentassistantschangedgenericmasculinelanguage
togender-neutralwordingwithoutbotheringtoask.EdwardSaid’scritiqueoforien-
talismandtheconceptofimaginaryethnographyaswellasstudiesofhowtheWest
wasviewedbyOthershavehelpedmetounderstandprocessesofknowledgeproduc-
tion.Ihavebenefitedgreatlyfromallofthem.
Ihavereadwidelyforthisresearch,butmylanguagesarelimitedtoGerman,
English,andFrench.FriendsandcolleagueshaveonoccasionhelpedwithSpanish,
Portuguese,Italian,Swedish,andDutch.Scholarsfromsomecountries,whocustom-
arilyprovideEnglishorFrenchabstractswiththeirpublications,havefacilitatedmy
accesstoothernationaldiscourses,asdidmycolleaguesintheinternationallyco-
operative Labor Migration Project. In particular, I am grateful to my colleagues at
DukeUniversitywhoprovidedastimulatingintellectualenvironment.Torontocol-
leagues—CanadiansofItalian,Ukrainian,andotherorigins—welcomedmewhen-
ever I did research in that delightful city. My study of Canadian immigrant auto-
biographies has supplemented the global perspective taken here. I am indebted to
mystudentsatYorkUniversity,theUniversityofToronto,andDukeUniversity,for
livelydiscussions,andtothoseinBremen,whosharedtheirownmigratoryexperi-
enceswithme.
I am indebted to the University of Bremen for agreeing to a leave of absence
andtotheDeutscheForschungsgemeinschaftandtheCanadaCouncilwhosupported
partsofit.Itsscopenotwithstanding,nomajorgrantsandresearchstaffhavesup-
portedtheproject—someofitslimitationsderivefromthefactthatitwasasingle-
person undertaking. But no individual works in a void. Marion Schulz, Camilla
Sledz,GabrieleIntemann,DeborahAllen,andothershelpedwiththebibliographical
sseeaarrcchheess.. PPaauull BBeettzz’s’s acnodp Iyreindait Sinchg,mIirtitn’sa cSocphymedititt’isn,ga annddA Annnniikkaa MMccPPhheerrssoonn’’ss pprrooooff--
rreeaaddiinngg wweerree aa mmaajojorrh helepl.pI. cMoauplds twesetrem pyraeppparreodac hbyes Mbyatltehcitausr eSschateisbenveerr,a lCNhroirsttha
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SAcmheeirbicnaenr, aanndd ECuarrooplyenan Kuinngiv, egrrsaipthiess bayn Rdodlifs Scuuassbemdyissfiennd.i In cgosualtdt theestm meye tainppgsrooafcthhees
bSoyc lieacltSucrieesn caet Hseivsetorarly NAossrothci aAtimoner.ican and European universities and discuss my
findiDngiffs earte tnhteia mteedeatirnggusm oefn tthseo Sfosctiuadl iSecsiceintceed Hofitsetnorhya Adstsoobceiarteiodnu.cedtoafewlines.
DateDs,ifefvereenntiniatsetda nadrgaurdmwenotrsk os,f ostfutednievs acriiteedd solfitgehnt lhyafdr otom boe nreedtuocethde ton ae xfte.wI lhinaevse.
Dcaautgehs,t esvoemne insu scthanindcaordn swisoterknsc,i eosftbeunt voathrieerds smliagyhthlyav feroemsc aopneed tmo ythneo tniecxe.t.S Ie vhearvael
ccaoullgehagt useosmree asducwhh ionlceocnhsaipstteenrscioers pbruotv iodtehdercso mmamye hnatsveo nesmcaypeudn dmeyrs tnaontdicine.g Soefvdeirsa-l
ctaonllteacguulteusr eresaadn wdhmolieg rcahtiaopntesrys sotre mprso:vNidaendc cyoGmrmeeenntasn odn Jmacyk uVneduegresltearnsd,iLnegw oifs dHis.-
tSaiengte clbualtuumreasn adnDd omnnigaraRt.iGona bsaycsctieam,Sst: eNveaHncoyc hGstraedetn, aanndd mJaacnky Votehuegreslenrasm, Leedwinist hHe.
Saniengoetlbataiuomns aantda Dppornonpari Rat.e Gpalbaaccecs.iaM, Satretvine HKloecihns,tSaudct,h aentad Mmaaznuym otdhaer,rsM naarmtiendF irna nthze-
abnacnho,taGtaiobnrise alet aSpcparrodperlliaattoe, pRlaocbeesr.t MEa.rJotihnn Ksoleni,na, nSudcLheestlaie MPaazguemMdoacrh, Joresaéd Mpoayrati,c Mulaarr-
tcihna pFtrearnszabnacdks,a Gveadbrmieelef rSocmardmeallnaytoe, rRroorbse,rats Ed.i dJothwnosoann,o annydm Loeussliree vPiaegwe eMrsoacnhd rtehaed
psearriteicsueldairt ocrhsa.pAtellrso fanthde smavheadv meeq ufreosmtio mneadnays esurrmorpst,i aosn sd,idim twproo vaendoninytmeropurse traetvioienws,-
earnsd apnrdo vthidee sdeerinecso eudriatgoerms. eAnltl wofh tehnemth ehavvaest qsuuebsjteicotnmeda tatsesrutmhrpetaiotennse, dimtoproovveerdw ihnetlemr-
pmree.taItiaomnsd, eaenpdl yprgorvatidefeudl etnocaolulroafgethmeemn—t wanhdent atkhee svoalset rseusbpjeocnts imbialtitteyr ftohrraenatyenererdo rtso
orevmerawinhienlgm. me. I am deeply grateful to all of them—and take sole responsibility for
any eInrrporasr triecmulaairnIinagm. indebtedtomywife,ChristianeHarzig,anaccomplishedmi-
gratiIonn phairsttiocurilaanr Ii namh eirndoewbntedri gtoh tm, yfo wrimfea, nCyhrsitsimtiaunlea tHinagrzdiigs,c auns saicocnosm. Opulirshdeadu gmhi--
gterratAionnn ahiusstuorailalyn bionr ehemr yowmne nrtiaglhlti,f efoirn mthaenpya ssttiwmiuthlaptiantgie dnicsec.uOssnicoen,sa. fOteurra ndoauthgehr-
tleenr gAthnynat ruipsutaollgyi vbeorpea pmeyrs manendtdalo lrifees einar tchhe, sphaestg wreietthe dpamtieenwciet.h Otnhcaet, paifetrecri nangoltohoekr
loefnhgetrhsy. ‘t‘Irfipt htois gciovne tpinaupeerss, Ianamd dgoo rinesgetaorcehm, sighrea tger.e(ePtaeuds me)eA wndithI atmhatg opiinergctinogw lroiotek
oemf higerras.n “tIlfe tttheirss —cotnhteinnuyeosu, Ih aamve gsoominegt thoi negmtiogrdaoter.e s(Peaaurcshe) oAnn.d(A In aomth egropinagu steo) wBurittIe
eammiggorainngt lteottceorps—yptharetns yoofuth heamvef rsoommeotthhienrge mtoi dgroa rnetsse’abrocohk os.nA. (nAdn(ointhteenr spiafiucaseti) oBnuto fI
athme gpoieirncgi ntog clooopky) ptharetns yoof uthaermel forsotm!’’ Iotdheedri ceamteigtrhainstbso’ obkootkosb. oAtnhdo (finthteenmsi.fication of
the piercing look) then you are lost!” I dedicate this book to both of them.
xviii Acknowledgments
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Contexts: An Introductory Note to Readers
Migration,oncedefinedasacrossingofbordersbetweenstates,isnowunderstoodas
asocialprocessandappearsasabasicconditionofhumansocieties.Itbeginswith
departureoutofparentalhouseholdsandrangesasfarastranscontinentalortrans-
oceanicmoves—ageographicscopethatmightbeoneandthesamemoveofamanor
awoman.Ontheotherhand,marriagemigrationfromonevillagetothenextcould
involvemoredemandsforadaptationthanamovefromasocietytoanethnicenclave
acontinentaway.Dislocationbyfamineorwarcouldendindeath,foragingnearby
orafar,orinlong-distancemigration.Inthemedievalandearlymodernperiodsmer-
chanttravel,militaryserviceabroad,politicalexile,andstudentmobilitycouldand
didprovideinformationforotherswhothenmigratedpermanently.Inthissurveyno
restrictivedefinitionofmobilityandmigrationhasbeenadopted,thoughdistinctions
areoutlined.
Thecomprehensiveapproachchosenhere—theconnectionofeconomicregion,
social world, polity, and family of departure via intervening inducements and ob-
stacles to a recharting of life-courses after arrival—demands both analysis of the
wholeofthesocietiesandofhumanagencyofparticularmenandwomen.Fromthe
pointofviewofindividuals,societiesconsistofregionaleconomiesandculturesand,
aftermigration,ofreligious,craft,orethnicnetworks.Ihavetriedtoindicateranges
ofoptionsvoluntarymigrantsfelttheyhadaswellastheconstraintsfacedbyforced
migrants.
Astonumbersofmigrants,itwasimpossibletoaggregate‘‘pluralist’’andcontra-
dictoryinformationintoonesetofdata.Sometimesindividualswerecounted,some-
timesheadsoffamilies;oftenstatisticsdidnotdistinguishgrossfromnetmigration.
States,orratherstateadministrators,hadspecificintereststoinflateordeflatemi-
grationstatisticsandgenerallylackedadequatesystemsofcollectingdata.Somemi-
grants avoided being counted; others were counted repeatedly; sometimes nonmi-
grantswantedtobecounted.Inastate-centeredapproach,unitsofcountingvaryin
sizefromChinatoLuxembourgor,liketheHabsburgEmpireortheSoutheastAsian
states,changedboundariesoverthecourseofhistory.Irefertoestimatesandtothe
revisionofestimates,sometimesvoicingskepticismofhighestimates.
Anyworkofthisscope,unlessasynthesisinafewdeftstrokes,createsdifficul-
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tiesinorganization.Ihaveoptedforanintegratedchronological,topical,andspatial
perspective.Tohelpreadersinterestedinoneparticularregionoftheworldorinone
particulartopicnavigatetheirwaythroughthisstudy,referencesattheendofspe-
cificsectionsprovideguidancetochaptersorpartsofchaptersthatcontinuethere-
gionalortopicaldiscussions.Forexample,themigrationhistoryofRussia/theSoviet
Union/theCommonwealthofIndependentStatesbeginsaspartofEuropeanurbani-
zation and regional agricultural settlement (chap.), separates into a distinct sys-
tem(chap.),thenbecomesoneofseveralforcedlaborsystems(chap.),andopens
upagainafter(chap.).Similarly,forcedlaborappearsintheMediterranean
systemofslavery;expandsintoAsianbondage,Africanhumanpawnship,andEuro-
peanindenture;continuesintoAfricanslaveryandAsian‘‘coolie’’labor;andextends
intotwentieth-centuryGerman,Russian,andJapaneseforcedlabor.Ihavefrequently
pointedtosimilaritiesbetweenmigrationprocessesindifferentcultures—reservoirs
forcheaplabor,forexample,likePolishterritoriesfortheeconomyofGermanyand
MexicanpeoplefortheeconomyoftheUnitedStates.Suchcomparisonsarebutheu-
risticdevicestounderstanddistant,‘‘foreign,’’developmentswithinfamiliarframe-
works.Theydonotadequatelyreflectdifferencesbetweenspecificmigratorymove-
ments.
Conventionaldesignationsforpre–nineteenth-centurystates,like‘‘France’’and
‘‘Britain’’ or ‘‘India’’ and ‘‘China,’’ impose statist concepts on diversities of regional
cultureswithoutevencommonlanguages.Forlackofbetterterms,thisstudy,too,
hastorelyonsuchdefectiveterminology.Similarly,conventionaldesignationsfor
socialregimesaremisleading.Serfdom,forexample,suggestssedentarywaysoflife
underlordlycontrol.Howdidenserfedfamiliesreactwhensoilwasexhausted,when
childrenneededland,orwhenanepidemickilledoffmostoftheirneighbors?Were
peasantsnotagents,ifconstrainedones,oftheirownlives?Thesamequestionhas
beenaskedaboutslavesintheAmericasandaboutcartersandboatmeninChina.
Aboutone-halfofthepopulationslivingatanyparticulartimeinhistorychangeresi-
dencebymarriagemigration.Manymigratetoperceivedopportunitiesandtoshape
theirownandtheirchildren’slives—providedtheemotionalcostinrupturedrela-
tionshipsdoesnotincreasebeyondexpectedmaterialadvantage.Quantifierswould
have difficulties in approaching these multiple scales, but each and every migrant
weighshisorherorthefamily’soptionsandarrivesatasumtotal,achartfortheir
life-coursedecisions.
One colleague in migration research in exasperation reduced the data for his
graphsandmapsbecauseotherwisetheywouldhavelookedlikeabowlofspaghetti.
Human movement might as well be compared to the grains in a sack of rice. In a
way,bothspaghettiandsacksofricewouldbeeasytostudy;migrants,bycontrast,
havemindsoftheirownandplansfortheirfutures.Myriadsofmovesacrossspace
resultfromthewillofmenandwomentofashionlives.Thesurvivalofforcedmi-
grants depended on their will to reconstruct their identities and attempt to regain
some control over their values, emotions, and relationships. In contrast, through-
out history rulers and administrators, plantation owners and capitalists, theorists
xx Introduction
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ofraceandpopulationplannershavereducedhumanmobilitytoschemesfacilitat-
ing their policies and reduced women and men and children to human material.
Theirconstructswere—andare—ofpitifulsimplicitywhencomparedtothecomplex
choicesofaSouthAmericanNativefamilyfacedwitharmedSpanishandPortuguese
newcomers,orthoseofaChinesepeasantfamilywithinsufficientland,orthoseof
a Turkish family caught up in twentieth-century labor migrations. In many of the
grandschemesofstatesandpoliticaleconomies,grainsofriceweretreatedwithmore
carethanhumanbeings.
Myownculturalworld,theEuro–NorthAmericanone,hasshapedmyperspec-
tive.Ithashelpedmetotranscendnationalhistoriesandtointegratethemultiple
migrationsofparticularethnicgroupsintotheAtlanticMigrationSystem.Butasan
attempttoprovideasynthesisofmigrationsworldwide,ofculturalinteractionand
conflict,theAtlanticperspectiveprovedtobeconfining.Itdidnotequipmetodeal
withculturalintricaciesoftheIndicWorldortheculturesofsub-SaharanAfrica.In
writing this book, I have changed terminologies and viewpoints from one draft to
thenextinordertomoveawayfromAtlanto-centricperspectives.Ihopethatthis
globalapproachwillprovokefurthercriticaldiscussion,thatmyargumentswillbe
expandedandrevisedbyscholarswhosebackgroundisculturallydifferent.
Explorationofmanyculturesinvolvesagreatnumberofcontrastingandconflict-
ingperspectives(map.).Whereiseast,wherewest?Americaisawesternculture
viewedfromEurope,aneasternoneviewedacrossthePacific.Mapscontainambi-
guities,andcartographyhasbeenEurocentricforcenturies.AccordingtoHarleyand
Woodward,‘‘Recognitionoftheideological,religious,andsymbolicaspectsofmaps,
particularlywhenlinkedwithamoretraditionalappreciationofmapsforpolitical
andpracticalpurposes,greatlyenhancestheclaimthatcartographycanberegarded
asagraphiclanguageinitsownright.’’Earlymapshavebeencalled‘‘imaginedevoca-
tionsofspace’’—butisalate-twentieth-centuryWesternmapofseventeenth-century
IndianOceanandEastAsiantradethatmerelychartsroutesofEuropeancolonizer
shippingmorethanaself-servingimage,aninstrumentofpower?Andwhichchro-
nologydowefollow?WhenintheLatinChristianEratheyearbegan,Coptic
Christiansstilllivedin,andtheJewishworldhadenteredtheyyear.The
Tamilcalendarpegsthecountat;theBuddhistoneat,theSikhoneat.
Or should time be counted not by religions but by arrival in a territory? Then the
1
firstpeopleinAustraliamightcounttheyear,.
Who is the Other? Medieval ‘‘heretics’’ like twentieth-century .. ‘‘draft-
dodgers’’espousedifferentethicalprinciples,politicalbeliefs,andemotionalworlds
thanthosewiththepowertodefineandtoshapereceiveddiscourse.Anemigrantin
onecultureisanimmigrantattheendofhisorhervoyage—andperhapsavagrantin
between.Aninnocuousstatement,suchas‘‘thefarmersoldhisgrain,’’maydisguise
familylaborandmigrations.
Itisimpossibletorefashionthewholeterminology,chronology,andconceptu-
alizationofmigration,butIattempttouseitcautiously.Differenthumanwaysof
living—whetherinsmallgroups(tribes),withinlimitedculturalterritories(ethnici-
Introduction xxi
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ties),orinlargeentities(states,nations,empires),orofcontinentalortranscontinen-
taldimensions(civilizations)—areequallyvalidculturalexpressions.Amerindianre-
treatisasmuchamigrationasEuro-Americanexpansion,andbothareconnected
bypowerrelations.Nationalcultures,averyrecentphenomenoninthehistoryand
materiallifeofsocieties,areinconstantevolutionandtransformation.‘‘Race’’and
‘‘colorofskin’’aresocialconstructswhoseconnotationsvaryovertimeandacross
cultures; theWhite/Colored dichotomy posits that White is no color; designations
likethe‘‘Indian’’or‘‘Negroproblem’’areWhitediscursivestrategiestohidetheprob-
lemofWhiteracism.Usageoftermsalsochangesovertimeandfromonecultureto
theother.‘‘Whites’’arealsocalledCaucasians,butthepeoplesoftheCaucasusre-
gionarenotnecessarilyconsideredWhiteinthepresent.EuropeansandAmericans
ofEuropeanoriginthinkofthemselvesasWhite;theU.S.censusdefinesthepeoples
of North Africa and southwestern Asia asWhite.On the other hand, Anglo-Saxon
andNordicracistthoughtofthelatenineteenthcenturyconsideredEastEuropeans,
SouthEuropeans,theIrish,andJewsnottobeWhite.Suchconstructionsarenumer-
ous,andthereareasmanyshadesofwhiteasofanyothercolor.
Inthisstudy,Idealwithmenandwomenleavingtheirhomesor,touseadiffer-
entemphasis,strikingoutintonewdirections.Theylivedunderconstructsofcolor
and culture but wanted to evaluate losses, options, and chances according to their
owntermsofreference.Iattempttofocusontheirlives,culturalexpressions,and
initiatives,notmerelyon‘‘streams,’’‘‘flows,’’or‘‘waves’’ofmigrantmasses.
xxii Introduction
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1
Worlds in Motion, Cultures in Contact
Historiansstudymenand,lesssountilrecently,womenwholeftarchivesratherthan
tracesinthesand.Thusmigrantshavebeenshortchangedinhistoriographythough
humanmobility,theagencyofmenandwomen,continuouslychangedsocietiesand
redefined parameters of action. My first goal is to describe and analyze migration
fromthelocalleveltothecontinent-wideandglobal.Mysecondgoalistodiscuss
interactionresultingfrommigration.Warriormigrantsaggressivelydestroyexisting
societies.Peasantandlabormigrantsaimatbecomingpartofthehostsocieties.In
intermediatestopsandattheendoftheirjourneystheyhavetoearntheirlivingand
establishnewcommunities.Theyfallinloveandbegetandgivebirthtochildren,fuse
theirculturaltraditionswithexigenciesofthenewsurroundings,anddevelopnew
subsistencebases.Third,Ifocusontheself-changingsocietiesintowhichmigrants
enter.Theydonotunderminestablecultures.Infact,societiesthrottledbystability
facethedepartureofmenandwomenwholookforopportunitiesmorechallenging
andpromisingfortheirlife-courses.
. PeopleontheMove:ChangesoverTenCenturies
ThisinquirybeginswithaMediterranean-outwardapproachandtracesconnections
to East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Equally valid perspectives would start from
China or the Gulf of Persia–IndicWorld. In Europe migrations of whole peoples—
Visigoth, Teutonic, Slavic—ended in the eleventh century with permanent settle-
1
ment,andgenderrelationsprobablychangedatthistime. InCentralAsiaandAfrica
people’s migrations continued for several more centuries. Historic migrations in
othercivilizationsweresummarizedretrospectivelywheninthesixteenthcentury
Europeancolonizersbegantotradewithpeoplesalongthecoastsofalloceans.The
colonizers’constructofaWhiteversusColoreddichotomybetweenthemselvesand
Othershidprocessesofethnogenesisinwhichcolonialcreolepeoplesemerged.Itas-
sumedculturalhierarchiesandpositedracialsuperioritieswherethedichotomywas
oneofpowerandthedifferenceswerecultural.
Ontosuchmixedpeoplesnineteenth-centuryEurope-centeredgatekeepersim-
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