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CULTURE
A CRITICAL REVIE\V OF CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
PAPERS
OP THE
PEABODY MUSEUM OF AMERICAN ARCH.tEOLOGY
AND ETHNOLOGY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
VOL. XLVIl-NJ. l
CULTURE
A CRITICAL REVIE\V OF CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
BY
A. L. KROEBER
AND
CLYDE KLUCICHOHN
WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF
WAYXE
VXTER:~IXElt
AND
APPENDICES BY
ALFRED G. 1.fEYER
CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS, U.S.A.
PUBLISHED BY THE MUSEUM
1952
--
51
426µ
v.47
!
110.
Plusn:o BY TIIE H\R\.ARD UNIVEJlSlTY P1U~TISG 0.-FICE
C.':\lBRIDC£. MASSACHl:SETTS, C .S. ' ·
ACKNO\VLEDG~IENTS
W E A.RE indebted to Professor Robert Cohen & \\'est. Ltd. (British Edition) anJ The Free
Bierstedt for access to his master's thesis, Press (American Edition): E. E. Evans-Prin:hard"s
only a small portion of which has been pub Social Anthropology ( 1951 ).
lished. His extensive bibliography through Columbia Uni\·ersicy Press: Abram Kardiner's The
1935 greatly lightened our task, and his text lnJh-idu.zl .inJ His Society ( 1939) and Ralph
Limon's TIJe Science of M.m in the JVorlJ Crisis
was also suggestive to us at many points. \Ve
(1945).
have also benefited from the memoranda and
E. P. Durton & Co~ Inc.: Alexander Leighton·s
records, largely unpublished, of the Commit
Hum.in Relations in a Ch.mging WorlJ (1949).
tee on Conceptual lntcgr3tion of the American
Farrar. Straus, and Young, Inc.: Leslie \\:hitc· s
Sociological Society (Albert Blumenthal,
The Science of CtJture (1949).
Chairman) of which one of us ( C. K.) \Vas a The Free Press: S. F. ~adel's The FounJ.ztions of
member in its later stage. Dr. Alfred ~leyer Soci.zl Anthropology (!~so).
was very helpful, especially with the German Harcourt. Brace and Company, Inc.: A. L. Krocbcr·s
materials. To Professor Leslie \Vhite we owe and T. T. \\'atennan·s Source Book in Anthropology
several references that we probably \VOttld not ( 1931 >. Krocber's Anthropology ( 1948). anJ lewis
have discovered ourseh-es. Professor Jerome Mumford's The Culture of Cities ( 1<n8).
D. C. Heath and Company: Franz Boas anJ others'
Bruner has made clarifying suggestions. Dr.
Gener.ii Anthropology ( 1938).
Walter Taylor and Paul Friedrich kindly read
The Hogarth Press: Geza Roheim's The RiJJle of
the manuscript and made suggestions.
tbe Sphinx ( 1934).
Wayne Untereiner, Richard Hobson, Clif A. :\. Knopf, Inc.: .\t. J. Herskovits' .\Ian md His
ford Geenz, Jr., Charles Griffith, ::md Ralph Jr orks ( 1948), anJ A. A. Goldenweiscr's History,
Patrick (all graduate students in anthropology Psychology and Cultme (1933).
at Harvard University) have not only done The .\tacmillan Company: G. P. Murdock"s Soci.Jl
unusually. competent work as rcscarc:1 assist Strllcturc ( 19-tg).
ants; each has made significant criticisms of McGraw-Hill Book Company, In~.: Ellsworth f an~·s
content and sty!e. \Ve ha\·c placed the name The N.zture of Humm Natttrc (1917}, Talcott
of l\fr. Cntereiner on the title-page because Parsons' The Strocttlre of Soci.zl Action (19J7), and
\\'. D. \\.allis's Culture md Progren (1930).
he made major contrihutions to our theoreti
cal formulat!ons. 1 c arc also Qrateful for ~lethucn & Company: R. R. ,\lart:tt's Psychology .mJ
\·
Folklore ( 1920).
the scrupulously careful \i.-·ork of Hermia Kap
Oxford Cnivcrsiry Prc~s: ,\feyer for.cs· The 1Veb
lan, ~lildred Geiger, Lois \Valk, ~luriel Le,·in,
of Kinrhip Among tbc T.11/emi ( 1949).
Ka~hryn G?re, and Carol T rosch in typing
Routledge anJ Keg.in P Jul, LtJ.: Ray munJ Finh' s
vanous versions of the manuscript. and to the
Primiti-t:e Polynesi111Z Economy (1939).
four first-named in collatina bibliographical l'niversity of California Press: Edward Sapir'1
references and editorial checkinu and to Cor Selected JV ritings of EJi;;:rrd Sapir in Language,
delia Galt and N3talie Stoddard ~·ho edited the Culwre, and Person.ility (edited by D. G. 1\bndcl
monograph. baum) (1949).
."":e thank the following publishers for per The Viking Press, Inc.: \V. F. Ogburn's Social Change
m1ss10n to quote from copyrighted materials: (r950).
\Vans & Company: Raymond Firth's Elements of
Addison-\Vcsley Press. Inc.: G. K. Zipfs Hwnan Soci.il Orgmiution ( 1951 ) •
Behm:ior and the Principle of Lean Eflort ( 1949). Yale Universicy Press: C. S. Ford's "A Simple Com
Applcton-Cenrury-Crofts, Inc.: A . .\. Goldenweiser·s parative Analysis of Material Culture," and G. P.
Antb1-opology ( 1937). Murdock's Editorial Preface, both of which appear
The Century Co.: C. A. Ellwood's Cultural fa:olution in Studies in the Science of Society Presented to
( 1917 ).
Albert Galloway Keller (1937).
v
CO~TENTS
ACKNOWLEDGM~'iTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v GROUP E: STRUCTURAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
INTRODUCTION' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J Emphasis on the patterning or organization
PART I: GENERAL HISTORY OF THE of culture . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 61
WORD CULTURE .................. . 9 Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1. Brief survey ............................ . 9 GROUP F: GENETIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~
z. c:ivilization ... .......................... . II F-1. Emphasis on culture as a product or
J· Rcbtion of civilization and culture ....... . 13 anifact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~
4- The distinction of civilization from culrure Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6s
in American sociology .................. . 13 F-11. Emphasis on ideis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
S· The attempted distinction in Germany ... . is Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6. Phases in the history of the concept of cul- F-IU. Emph3sis on symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
ture in Germany ....................... . 18 Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7. Culture as a concept of eighteenth-century F-IV. Residual category definitions . . . . . . . . . . 70
general history ......................... . 18 Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
8. Kant to Hegel .......................... . l.J GROUP G: l~CO\IPLETE DEflSITIOSS 71
9. Analysis of KJemm's use of the word "Cul- Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
tu.r" ............ ' ....................... . 24 NDEXES TO DEfl~lTIO~S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7J
10. The concept of culture in Germany since A: Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7J
1850 •••••••••••..•.••..•..•..••.•••..•.. 16 B: Conceptual clements in definitions . . . . . . • 14
1 r. "Kultu.r" and "Schrecklichkeit" .......... . 28 \Vords not included in lndu B . . . . . . . . . . • 78
11. Danilevslcy ............................. . 19 PART III: so~.tE STATEMENTS ABOUT
13. "Culture" in the humlnitie:; in England and CULTURE ............................ 8J
elsewhere ............................... . 29 I~"TRODUCTIOS . . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . .. 8J
14. Dictionary definitions ................... . 3J GROUP a: THE ~ATlJRE OF ClJLTv'RE 84
•S· General discussion ...................... . 3S Con1ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Addendum: Febvre on cit-ili1mon .......... . J7
GROUP b: THE CO.\tPO~"E.'.\rfS OF CUL-
PART II: DEFINITIONS ................ . 41 TVRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9S
IN'TRODUCTIO~ ........................ . 41 C,omment ................ : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
GROUP A: DESCRIPTIVE ............... . 4J GROUP c: DISTl~CTl\'f. PROPERTIF.S OF
Brend definitions with emf-h:lSb on enwnc:ra
CULTURE ............................. 99
tion of conttnt: usually inrluenced by Tylor ·H · Con11nent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Comment .............................. . 44 Summary of propenies ................... 101
GROUP B: HISTORICAL ................ .
47 GROUP d: CULT CRE A~D PSYCHOLOGY 101
Emphasis on social heritage or tradition .. : .. . 47 .. Comment ................................. 109
Comment .......•.................•..... 48
GROUP C: NOR.\IAT IVE ................ . so GROUP e: CULTURE A~D LA~GUAGE 115
C-1. Emphasis on rule or way ............. . so Comment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 l .J
GROUP f: RELATIO~ OF CGLTURE TO
Comment .............•......•.•....•••• JI
SOCIETY, NDIVIDUALS, ENVIROS-
C-Il. Emphasis on j,foals or values plus be-
MEST, AND ARTIFACTS ............. us r
havior ................................. . 51
Comment ....... ·. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1J1
Comment .............................. . H
GROUP D: PSYCHOLOGICAL ........... . SS ADDESDA ................................ 1 J9
NDEX TO AUTHORS~ PART III ....... 141
0-1. Emphasis on adjustment, on culture as a
problem.solving device .................. . ss• PART IV: SUMMARY AND CONCLU-
Comment .............................. . 56 SIONS ................................. •.is
D-Il. Emphasis on learning ................ . 58 A: SU.\1.\1ARY .........................•.. 1.;s
Comment .............................. . 59 \\'ord and concept ......................... •.is ~
0-In. Emphasis on habit ................... . 6o Philosophy of history .. . .. . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . 14s
Comment •..•................•.........• 6o Use of culture in Germany .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •-46
0-IV. Purely psychological definitions ..... . 6o Spread of the concept and resistances . . . . . . . . 1¢ t
Conunent .•.•.••..............•..•.•.••. 6o Culrure and civiliution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 147
vii
Culture as an emergent or level . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Significance and values ..................... 171
Dc6rurions of culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 ~ Values and relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Before and after 1910 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • 149 C: CONO..USION ......................... 18o
The pbce of Tylor and Wissler ............. 150 A final review of the conceptual problem .... 18o
The course of post-1910 definit:ons . . . . . . . . . 1 p Review of aspects of our own position . . . . . . . 184
IUnk order of clemencs entering into post- REFER.E..."'CES ............................... 193
1930 definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 SJ APPL"'DICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Number of clements entering into single defi- APPL'1DLX A: HISTORICAL NOTES ON
nitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 54 IDEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THE
Firul comments on definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 54 CONCEPT OF CULTURE IN GER
Sutemcnts about culrure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 S7 MANY A.'-"D RUSSL.\, by Alfred G.
B: G~'JERAL FEATURES OF CULTURE . 159 Meyer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . • 107
lnregration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 APPENDIX B: THE USE Or' THE TER.\t
Historicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 159 CULTURE IN THE SCVIET UNION
Unifo m1ities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 by Alfred G. Meyer . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 J
Causality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 INDEX OF NA.\tES OF PERSO~S .......... 111
CULTURE
A CRITICAL REVIE\V OF CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS
