Cultivated Land Use Benefits Under State and Collective Agrarian Property Regimes in China

19 Pages·2017·7.51 MB·English

sustainability
Article
Cultivated Land Use Benefits Under State and
Collective Agrarian Property Regimes in China
QuanfengLi1,2,ShougengHu2,†,GuomingDu1,*,†,ChuanrongZhang3 ID andYansuiLiu4
1 CollegeofResourcesandEnvironment,NortheastAgriculturalUniversity,Harbin150030,China;
[email protected]
2 SchoolofPublicAdministration,ChinaUniversityofGeosciences,Wuhan430074,China;
[email protected]
3 DepartmentofGeography,CenterforEnvironmentalSciencesandEngineering,UniversityofConnecticut,
215GlenbrookRd,Unit4148,Storrs,CT06269,USA;[email protected]
4 InstituteofGeographicSciencesandNaturalResourcesResearch,ChineseAcademyofSciences,
Beijing100101,China;[email protected]
* Correspondence:[email protected]
† Theseauthorscontributedequallytothiswork.
Received:24October2017;Accepted:29November2017;Published:21December2017
Abstract: Agrarianpropertyregimesinteractwithrelevantpropertystakeholders’behaviorsand
benefits,playingavitalroleinnationalandregionalcultivatedlanduse. InChina,stateandcollective
agrarianpropertyregimesarethetwomainformsofcultivatedlanduse. Tohelpfullyrealizethe
multi-objectivesofcultivatedlandusebenefitsprovidedbyagrarianpropertyregimes,ourstudy
investigatedtherelationshipbetweenagrarianpropertyregimesandcultivatedlanduse. Thispaper
describestheroleofacultivatedlandusesysteminfacilitatingtherelationshipbetweenagrarian
property regimes and cultivated land use from a geographical perspective. Understanding the
cultivatedlandusesystemisthefoundationforcomparativelyanalyzingdifferencesinthecultivated
landusebenefitsintwoadjacentareas, astate-ownedregimeandacollectiveregime, inthecity
of Fujin, China, through a comprehensive evaluation. We found the following results: (1) The
arrangementofagrarianpropertyrightsdirectlyreflectscapital,materialandtechnologyinputsby
motivatingagriculturallaborstoobtaindifferenteconomicbenefits;(2)Thestateagrarianproperty
regimereflectstop-downagriculturalmanagementwhilethecollectiveagrarianpropertyregime
reflects bottom-up agricultural management in China. The different agricultural managements
influenceplantingstructureandlanduseplanning,resultingindifferentecologicalbenefits;(3)Labor
divisionandsocialinsurancearethemaindriversofdifferentsocialbenefitsfromthetworegimes.
Examiningcultivatedlandusebenefitsprovidesanewcomparativeperspectiveforstudyingagrarian
property regimes. The results show that cultivated land use benefits from collective and state
agrarianpropertyregimes are different. Thesefindingsclarify that, incentivizedby the different
typesofagrarianpropertyownershipsrepresentedbycollectivelyandstate-ownedregimes,local
governmentsandorganizationsaimtoachievethemulti-objectivecultivatedlandusebenefitgoalof
Chineseagriculturaldevelopment,includingeconomic,ecologicalandsocialbenefits. WithChina’s
goalofconductingmoderateagriculturalreforminitsagrarianpropertyregime,verificationofrural
collectivelandrightsisaneffectiveformofassetmanagementincollectiveareasinChina,while
deepeninglandtenureandusufructisanimportantpriorityinstate-ownedregimes. Furthermore,
tomakefulluseofagriculturalresources,itisnecessarytohaveaclosecollaborationbetweenthe
collectiveagrarianpropertyregimeandthestateagrarianpropertyregime.
Keywords: agrarian property regime; cultivated land use benefits; state-owned area; collective
area;China
Sustainability2018,10,7;doi:10.3390/su10010007 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability2018,10,7 2of19
1. Introduction
Agrarianregimesdeterminebehaviorsandbenefitsofrelevantstockholdersbydefiningagrarian
propertyrights. Theagrarianpropertyregimeinteractswithruralresidents,playingavitalrolein
socio-economyandenvironmentatboththenationalandregionalscales.InChina,sustainedeconomic
development, rapidurbanizationandagriculturaldiversificationhavebeenaccompaniedbyland
usechangeandsocio-economictransitioninthepastapproximately40years[1,2]. However,stark
institutionaltrade-offsbetweenagrarianpropertyregimesandcultivatedlandusesareincreasingly
apparent,witheffectsrangingfromfragmentizedfarmlandtodegradedecosystemsandimperfect
socio-security [3]. Furthermore, these dilemmatic trade-offs are predicted to continue. Reforming
broken-down agrarian property regimes and steering cultivated land use towards sustainable
developmenthavebecomefocusedstudytopicsofscholarsandagrarianmanagers.
Thedifficultyofidentifyingandexplainingtheintrinsicforcesdrivingcultivatedlandusehas
inspiredscholarstostrengthenanalysesonthehistoryanddriversofcultivatedlanduse[4–6]. China’s
agrarianpropertyregimeswerereorganizedinthe1980s,andthepercapitagrainyieldrosefrom
319to443kg,withagrowthofapproximately40%,between1978and2013. Nonetheless,feeding
1376millionpeopleon142millionhectaresoflandoffoodgrainspresentschallengesforcultivated
landuse[7]. FortheagriculturalregionsinChina,agriculturalmanagement,thefarmlandlandscape
andcultivatedlandusebehaviorsvaryamongtownshipsandstatefarmsunderdifferentagrarian
propertyregimes[8]. Thus, centralandlocalgovernmentsareendeavoringtopromotecultivated
landusewithmulti-objectives,thougheffectivestrategiestoalignagrarianpropertyregimeswith
cultivatedlanduserequireadaptivetheoryandpractice.
Differentcultivatedlandusesunderdifferentagrarianpropertyregimescanproducedifferences
incultivatedlandusebenefits[9–11]. Inaddition,interactionsbetweenagrarianpropertyrightsand
cultivatedlandusesoftenresultineconomy–society–ecosystemproblemsovertime[12–14].Toachieve
agriculturalsustainability,itisextraordinarilyimportanttoimplementsuccessfulstrategiesthatfocus
onboostingoptimizationofeconomic,socialandecologicalbenefitsfrombalancingregionalagrarian
propertyregimesandconsciouscultivatedlanduses[15,16]. Effectiveplanningisextremelyhelpful
foreffectiveagriculturalmanagementandlandresourceallocation[17].
Optimizingcultivatedlandusebenefitsistheultimategoalofachievingcultivatedlandusewith
multipleobjectivesundermoderaterestructuringofagrarianpropertyregimes[18],whichincludenot
onlyprovidingfoodandclothingbutalsofoodsecurity,socialsecurityandecosystemsustainability[19–22].
Mostempiricalstudiesassessingcultivatedlandusebenefitsandtheirdrivingforceshavefocusedon
thefollowingresearchareasoneconomy,societyandecology: productionpatternrecognition,social
securityassessment,andecologicalstateestimation[23–26]. Theresultsofthesestudiesshowthat
theunderlyingdriversofcultivatedlandusebenefitstendtobedifferentfromthedifferentstudied
benefits. The complicated interactions in the economic–social–ecological system make it difficult
tosystematicallyexplaintheunderlyingmechanismsofcultivatedlandusebenefits. Geographical
theoryhasbeendocumentedasausefulapproachtounderstandlandusemechanisms,fromcoupled
human–environment–societyonamacroscopicscaletoruraltransformationonamicro-scale[27–29].
Geographicalsystemstheoryhasfacilitatedthestudyoftheinternalrelationshipsamongagricultural
productions,ecologicalservices,andsocialfunctionsincultivatedlanduse. However,itisnecessary
touseasystematicalandstraightforwardsystemforevaluatingthemechanismofcultivatedland
usebenefits.
Thispaperattemptstoimproveourunderstandingoftherelationshipbetweenagrarianproperty
regimeandcultivatedlanduseunderthedifferentcultivatedlanduseoperationmechanismsaswell
asthedifferentdrivingforcesfromthedifferentagrarianregimeperspectivesviaacomparativestudy
betweenacollectiveareaandastate-ownedareainChina. Wemainlyaddressthefollowingresearch
questions: Howarediversecultivatedlandusebenefitsfrombothstate-ownedandcollective-owned
agrarianregimesgenerated?Whataretheimpactsofagrarianpropertyregimesoncultivatedlanduse?
Sustainability2018,10,7 3of19
TherelationshipbetweenagrarianpropertyregimesandagriculturalmanagementinChinawas
analyzedinthisstudy. Thefollowingsectionproposesaframeworkfordescribingtheoperationof
cultivatedlandusesystems. UsingthecityofFujinasacasestudy,thisresearchexamineddifferent
agrarianpropertyregimestoinvestigatecultivatedlandusebenefitsinChina.
2. AgrarianPropertyRegimeandAgriculturalManagement
2.1. CollectiveandState-OwnedAgrarianPropertyRegimes
China’sagrarianpropertyregimeshavebeenbasedonthepublicownershipoflandincluding
stateownershipandcollectiveownershipsincethesocialistsystemof1956[30]. Accordingtothe
Chineseconstitution(2004),propertiesofthesamelandusetype(e.g.,cultivatedland)differinthe
collectiveandthestate-ownedregimes[31]. Thecollectivelandisoverseenbyvillagecommitteesand
cooperativeorganizations,whereasthestate-ownedlandisownedbytheStateCouncilofChina.
Havingaclearlandownershipisacommoncharacteristicofboththecollectiveandthestate
agrarian property regimes; however, these regimes have had different agricultural goals since the
earlydays[32]. Forinstance, thestateagrarianpropertyregimecanbetracedbacktostatefarms,
whichwereoriginallybuiltforthenationalfoodsupplyafterhundredsofthousandsofdemobilized
soldiersandeducatedyouthsreclaimedwastelandinHeilongjiangProvince. Incontrast,thecollective
agrarianpropertyregimewasderivedfromruralregions,wherecultivatedlandwasequallyshared
forbasiclivingofoverthreehundredmillionpeasants(theword“peasant”referstothesocialworkers
wholiveinthecountrysideandengageinagriculturalproduction. Infact,Chinesepeasantshave
long-term land use rights (generally 30 years), but there is no perfect social mechanism to protect
them in the Chinese system. On the other hand, “farmhand” refers to the state workers who live
onthestatefarmandengageinagriculturalproduction. Farmhandsdonothavethelandright,but
haveperfectsocialsecurity. Generallyspeaking, farmhandscanlivewellwithoutcultivatedland,
butChinesepeasantsaretheopposite). Landtenurewasseparatedfromlandownershipaftertaking
the household contract system (the household contract system is an organic whole composed of
collectiveeconomicorganizationasthecontractingparty,thefamilyasthecontractorandthecontract
asthelink. Inthecontract,thefamily(thehouseholdcontractor)getstherightsoflanduseforfree,
but needs to fulfill a series of obligations given by the state. At the same time, the family as the
unit carries out agricultural production on their own cultivated land is said to family agriculture)
in 1982 [33]. Family agriculture contracting on cultivated land from village committees and state
farmswasestablishedtoenableindependentagriculturalbusinessdecisionsbypeasantsandstate
farmhands [34]. In addition, the Chinese government created two different two-tier agricultural
managementsystemsformanaginglandownershipandtenurethroughouttownshipsandstatefarms.
Landtenureincludesspecificrights,suchascontractoperationrights,subcontractrightsandlease
rights[35,36],butthecollectivepropertyregimedefinesdifferentlimitationsfortheserightsfromstate
agrarianpropertyregime. Landtenureissharedbystatefarmsandfarmhandsinthestateagrarian
propertyregime,whereasalllandtenureinthecollectiveagrarianpropertyregimeisgiventopeasants.
However, thereisanunsolvedquestionforcollectiveownership, namelythattheamountofland
towhicheachentityisentitledhasneverbeenclearlydelineatedandevenboundariesarenotfixed.
Toresolveproblemsoffarmingdisputesandburdens,equivalentcultivatedlandwasallocatedto
peasantswithacontractof30yearsinwhichtoexerciseagrarianrights[37]. Toavoidsimilarproblems
instatefarms,thecultivatedlandwasdividedintotwoparts. Thefirstpartisthecost-freeassignment
ofapproximatelyonehectareoflandforsubsistencetoeachstatefarmhand,whilethesecondpartis
theleaseoftheremainingcultivatedlandatamoderatepricetofarmhandswith1–5yearcontracts
basedonmarketcompetition[38]. Underthespecifiedcultivatedlanddistribution,cultivatedland
benefitswerepromotedamongtownshipsandstatefarms.
Townshipsandstatefarmsareincreasinglyturningtocultivatedlanduseoperationtomanage
agriculturalbenefitsbygrantingdiscretionaryrights. Meanwhile,theoperatingstatusofcultivated
Sustainability2018,10,7 4of19
landhasbeenundergoingsubstantialchange. Withthegoalofdevelopingsustainableagriculture,
profitseekingfromcultivatedlanduseisgenerallyconductedfortheintegratedwelfareoftownships
andstatefarms.
2.2. AgriculturalManagementofTownshipsandStateFarms
AgriculturalmanagementhasgreatlyboostedtheChineseeconomysincethelate1970s. TheGDP
increasedfrom600millionRMByuanin1978to1.03billionRMByuanin1984[39]. Duetoexpiring
contracts,cultivatedlandwasnotintensivelyincreased,leadingtoa7%declineingrainoutputfrom
1985to1992. Untiltakingthe30-yearcultivatedlandcontractin1993,cultivatedlandwasefficiently
managed under a two-tier agricultural management system: the collective management and the
statemanagement.
The collective agricultural management was initiated with the cultivated land contracts of
FengyangCountyinAnhuiProvinceandthenexpandedthroughoutChina[40].Collectiveagricultural
managementlargelyweakenedhighlyconcentratedfarmingoperations(e.g.,thePeople’sCommune),
butinheritedlong-termunchangedcultivatedlandcontracts. Alongwiththeestablishedpersonal
landpropertyrights[41],thecollectiveagriculturalmanagementsystemwaschangedinthreerespects.
Firstly,thehouseholdcultivatedlandcontractwasdevisedtomanagecultivatedlandusebyvillage
committees or organizations; thus, supervising and guiding agricultural production have become
mainlythechargeoftownshipsorhighleveladministrations. Secondly, asagriculturaloperators,
peasantsbegantomanagethecultivatedlandanddeterminecroptypesandvarietiesbasedonthe
market quotations. Finally, as the main form of household cultivated land contract management
thecooperationandfreetradeofpeasantsplayacoreroleintownshipandvillages,althoughnew
agribusinessesandorganizationshavebeenfounded[42,43].
Thestateagriculturalmanagementformallylearnedfromthecollectiveagricultureexperience
in 1983 and has been extensively accepted by state farm managers. The obvious importance is
thatthestateagriculturalmanagementsystemhastakenawaythehighly-centralizedmanagement
and imperfect wage distribution while enabling the autonomic operation of cultivated land for
farmhands[44]. Thedetailedmanagementcanbedescribedintwoparts. Ononehand,statefarm
managersrepresentthemainformofcombiningtheagriculturalmanagementwithsocio-economic
managementofstatefarmsandagriculturalproduction. Ontheotherhand,statefarmhandsusecrop
typeandvarietiesdictatedbystatefarmsintheagro-productionprocess,allowingcropproductionto
bebalancedinresponsetosupplyanddemandtomeetnationalfoodneeds.
Inrecentyears,thefamilyagricultureamongtownshipsandstatefarmshasbecomeirreplaceable
forachievinglarge-scaleintensiveagricultureunderthetwo-tieragriculturalmanagementandisbeing
developedwithmodernscienceandtechnology[32].
3. StudyAreaandTheoreticalFramework
3.1. StudyArea
AsshowninFigure1,thecityofFujin,thestudyarea,islocatedineasternHeilongjiangProvince
innortheasternChina(at46◦45(cid:48)–47◦45(cid:48)N,131◦25(cid:48)–133◦26(cid:48)W),lyingontheSanjiangPlain(theSanjiang
Plain is beneficial for agricultural production, as one of only three alluvial black soil plains in the
world,andiscalled“thenortherngranaryinChina”[45]). Thecitycoversapproximately8277km2,
withcultivatedlandoccupyingapproximately75%,andcontains11townshipsandthreestatefarms.
AgricultureisthemajoreconomicactivityinFujin,buttherearelargedifferencesinadjacentareas
withregardtostate-ownedandcollectiveagrarianpropertyregimes. WesternFujin,thecollective
area(CA),employsthecollectiveagrarianpropertyregime, whichinvolvestraditionalhousehold
contractcultivation. ThetownshipsintheCAincludeFujin(FJ),Shangjieji(SJJ),Chang’an(CHA),
Yanshan (YS), Dayushu (DYS), Jianshan (JS), Toulin (TL), Xiangyangchuan (XYC), Xinglonggang
(XLG),Hongsheng(HS)andErlongshan(ELS).Theeasternpartofthecity,thestate-ownedarea(SA),
Sustainability2018,10,7 5of19
appliesthestate-ownedagrarianpropertyregime,inwhichcultivationisundertakenbystate-owned
organizationsandhouseholdcooperation. TheSAincludestheQixingstatefarm(QX),Chuangye
statefarm(CY)andDaxingstatefarm(DX).
From 1991 to 2010, the difference between the per capita GDP of CA (growth rate: 17%) and
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2228 5 of 19
SSuAsta(in2a0b.i3li6ty% 20)1h7,a 9s, 2b2e2e8 n notable, and the gap doubled in 2010 (Figure 2). The agricultural econ5o omf 1y9
wdoamsdinoamnitn iann tbionthb oCthA C(aAp(parpopxriomxaimtelayte 5ly5%55) %a)nadn SdAS A(a(papprporxoixmimataetleyl y757%5%) )dduurirningg tthhee ttwwoo ddeeccaaddeess
dominant in both CA (approximately 55%) and SA (approximately 75%) during the two decades
((FFiigguurree 33)).. FFuujjiinn pprroovviiddeess aa vvaalluuaabbllee ooppppoorrttuunniittyy ttoo uunnddeerrttaakkee ccoommppaarriissoonn ooff ccuullttiivvaatteedd llaanndd uussee
(Figure 3). Fujin provides a valuable opportunity to undertake comparison of cultivated land use
bbeenneefifittss uunnddeerrd idffiefrfeenretnatg raagriraanripanro pperrotpyerretgyi mreegs.imDeifsf.e rDenifcfeesreinncinesst iitnu tiionnsstiatuntdioangsr icaunldtu raaglreiccounltoumrayl
benefits under different agrarian property regimes. Differences in institutions and agricultural
aeclsoonpolmayy aalvsiot apllraoyl ea ivnitsatlu rdoylein ign csutultdivyaintegd ctuhletilvaantdedu tsheeb leannedfi utsseo fbCenAefaintsd oSfA C.A and SA.
economy also play a vital role in studying cultivated the land use benefits of CA and SA.

Figure 1. Location of Fujin (c) in China (a) and Heilongjiang Province (b). The study area covers 11
Figure1. LocationofFujin(c)inChina(a)andHeilongjiangProvince(b). Thestudyareacovers
Figure 1. Location of Fujin (c) in China (a) and Heilongjiang Province (b). The study area covers 11
townships and three state farms.
11townshipsandthreestatefarms.
townships and three state farms.

Figure 2. GDP per capita in the collective area (CA) and state-owned area (SA) from 1991 to 2010.
Figure 2. GDP per capita in the collective area (CA) and state-owned area (SA) from 1991 to 2010.
SFoiguurrcee: 2S.taGtiDstPic pYeeracrabpooitkasi noft Fhuejicno lalnecdt iAvegraicreualtu(CraAl )Raencdlamstaattieo-now ofn Hedeialorenagj(iSaAng) fPrroomvin19ce9.1 to2010.
Source: Statistic Yearbooks of Fujin and Agricultural Reclamation of Heilongjiang Province.
Source:StatisticYearbooksofFujinandAgriculturalReclamationofHeilongjiangProvince.
3.2. Cultivated Land Use System (CLUS)
3.2. Cultivated Land Use System (CLUS)
3.2. CultivatedLandUseSystem(CLUS)
In the last few hundred years, agrarian reform has benefitted cultivated land use by establishing
In the last few hundred years, agrarian reform has benefitted cultivated land use by establishing
incenItnivtehse floars tsufecwh lhaunndd uresed, ysueacrhs ,aas gargarraiarinanre pforormpehrtays rbeeonregfiatntiezdatciuolnti vanatde daglraincdulutusreabl ylaensdta fbulnischtiinong
incentives for such land use, such as agrarian property reorganization and agricultural land function
itnracnensftoivrmesaftoiorns u[4ch6,4la7n].d Augsrea,rsiuanch reagsiamgeras rciahnanpgreo pcuerlttyivraetoedrg laannidza utisoen aacncodrdaginrigc utolt uagrarlarlaiannd pfuronpcetirotny
transformation [46,47]. Agrarian regimes change cultivated land use according to agrarian property
trriganhstsfo, prmlaaytiinogn a[ 4k6e,y47 r]o.lAe ginr aargiarincureltguimrael spcrohdanugcteiocnu.l tIinv athteed lalastn fdewus deeaccacdoersd,i nthget iontaegrraacrtiiaonn pbreotwpeeretny
rights, playing a key role in agricultural production. In the last few decades, the interaction between
raiggrhatrsi,apnl aryeginimgaesk eayndro cleulitnivaagtreidcu llatunrda lupsreo dhausc tbioene.nI nintvheesltaigsattfeedw idne caa vdaersi,etthye oinf tweraayctsi obny bveatwrioeeuns
agrarian regimes and cultivated land use has been investigated in a variety of ways by various
aagurtahroirasn. rCeognimstersucatnindgc uthlteivoaretetidcalal nfrdamuseewhoarskbse (een.gi.n, vFeosotidg aatnedd aingraicvualrtiuertye oofrgwaanyizsabtyiovna orifo tuhsea Uunthitoerds.
authors. Constructing theoretical frameworks (e.g., Food and agriculture organization of the United
Cnaotniosntrsu, cGtilnogbathl eloanredt icparlofjeracmt),e wwhoirckhs i(se .gth.,eF mooodsta cnodmamgroicnu altpuprerooarcgha,n hizaast iboeneno fpthroepUonseitde dbansaetdio nons,
nations, Global land project), which is the most common approach, has been proposed based on
cultivated land use [48,49].
cultivated land use [48,49].
In our study, CLUS is defined as a dynamically-integrated system by mutually coupling
In our study, CLUS is defined as a dynamically-integrated system by mutually coupling
cultivated land use elements at a specific spatial–temporal scale (Figure 4a), with interactions among
cultivated land use elements at a specific spatial–temporal scale (Figure 4a), with interactions among
economic, social and ecological subsystems (sub-CLUSs) (Figure 4b). Cultivated land use benefits
economic, social and ecological subsystems (sub-CLUSs) (Figure 4b). Cultivated land use benefits
(CLUBs), as contributions of CLUS, are determined by the structural CLUS elements (e.g., soil, capital
(CLUBs), as contributions of CLUS, are determined by the structural CLUS elements (e.g., soil, capital
and operators). Considering the fact that essential cultivated land use contains economic, social and
and operators). Considering the fact that essential cultivated land use contains economic, social and
environmental functions, cultivated land elements must link the economy, society and ecology to
environmental functions, cultivated land elements must link the economy, society and ecology to
serve sub-CLUSs [50,51]. In the economic subsystem, the main functions of cultivated land are to
serve sub-CLUSs [50,51]. In the economic subsystem, the main functions of cultivated land are to
Sustainability2018,10,7 6of19
Globallandproject),whichisthemostcommonapproach,hasbeenproposedbasedoncultivated
landuse[48,49].
Inourstudy,CLUSisdefinedasadynamically-integratedsystembymutuallycouplingcultivated
landuseelementsataspecificspatial–temporalscale(Figure4a),withinteractionsamongeconomic,
social and ecological subsystems (sub-CLUSs) (Figure 4b). Cultivated land use benefits (CLUBs),
as contributions of CLUS, are determined by the structural CLUS elements (e.g., soil, capital and
operators). Considering the fact that essential cultivated land use contains economic, social and
environmentalfunctions,cultivatedlandelementsmustlinktheeconomy,societyandecologytoserve
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2228 6 of 19
sub-CLUSs[50,51]. Intheeconomicsubsystem,themainfunctionsofcultivatedlandaretogenerate
foodgeannedraitnec foomode avniad iinnvcoemstein vgiac ainpviteaslt,inmg actaepriitaall,a mndatteerciahl naonldo gteyc.hInnotlhogeys.o Icni atlhseu sboscyiaslt esumb,sycustletmiv,a ted
cultivated land as an important asset must be used to ensure both basic subsistence needs and
landasanimportantassetmustbeusedtoensurebothbasicsubsistenceneedsandnationalfood
national food supplies, which represent the social security role. In the ecological subsystem,
supplies,whichrepresentthesocialsecurityrole. Intheecologicalsubsystem,cultivatedlandinteracts
cultivated land interacts with natural resources to provide ecological services under specific
withnaturalresourcestoprovideecologicalservicesunderspecificgeographicalconditions. Providing
geographical conditions. Providing food, social security and ecological services in sub-CLUSs is
food,socialsecurityandecologicalservicesinsub-CLUSsisaffectedbycultivatedlandusefunctions,
affected by cultivated land use functions, which are expressed as economic, social and ecological
whichareexpressedaseconomic,socialandecologicalbenefits(indicatedbenefitsrefertoagricultural
benefits (indicated benefits refer to agricultural productions; invisible benefits are social security and
productions;invisiblebenefitsaresocialsecurityandecologicalservicegoods).
ecological service goods).

Figure 3. Agricultural economies between CA and SA. Source: Ibid.
Figure3.AgriculturaleconomiesbetweenCAandSA.Source:Ibid.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2228 7 of 19
TheformulasofCLUSareasfollows:
The formulas of CLUS are as follows:
⟺

n CLU
whwerheeSrCeL SUCiLsU CisL CULSU;∑S;in =1CiL=1Ui refeir srteofeCrsL UtoS CeLleUmSe enltesm,wenhtesr, ewnhiesreth ne insu thmeb neurmofbeelre mofe enltesm;Ren[rtisj]; iRs[rij]
theirse tlhatei ornelsahtiiponosfheilpe mofe enltesm;seinsttsh; es gise othgera gpehoigcaralpdhisitcraibl udtiisotrnibouftciuolnti voaf tceudltliavnadte;dt ilsatnhde; tti mis ethpea tthim;feC LpUath;
isthfCeLUC iLs UthSes tCruLcUtuS rset;rEuRctiusrteh; eECR LisU tShee nCvLirUoSn menevnitr,oinncmluednitn, gintchluedeicnogn othmei cecsounbosymsitce msu(bEscyosnt)e,mso (cEiaclon),
subssoycsitaelm su(bSsoyc)s,taenmd (eScoocl)o, gaincdal escuoblsoygsitceaml s(uEbcsoyl)s;tBemCL U(Eicsotlh);e BiCnLsUt iitsu tthioen ianlsetiftfuectitoonnalC eLffUeSct; aonnd CFLCULUS;i sand
theFCCLLUU isS tphrea CctLicUeSu npdraecrtigcuei duanndceer ogfuiindsatnitcuet ioofn inasntdituptoiolincy a.nd policy.
4. MaFtiegruirael s4 . a(an) dT hMe ceutlhtiovadtsed land use system (CLUS) framework; (b) the sub-CLUS relationship. CLUS
is composed of economic, social, and ecological subsystems. Elements of the economic subsystem
4.1. Rienscelaurdceh cMapeittahlo, dmsa terial and technological components. The social subsystem elements consist of
agricultural operator, technician, and manager. Elements of the ecological subsystem include climate,
4.1.1. hCyLdrUolBo gMy, orodcekls , soil and organisms. Representing achievements of CLUS, agricultural production,
social security benefits, and ecological services are cultivated land use benefits.
CLUB is resulted from interactions between human activity and cultivated land, determined by
the socio-economy and natural environment. CLUBs (Table 1) consist of the economic, social, and
ecological benefits provided by CLUS functions.
Table 1. Cultivated land use benefits (CLUB) in the study.
Target Status Factor Function
Food benefit (FB)
Economic Grow food, melon, fruit, vegetables,
Oil-bearing benefit (OB)
benefit (EB) oil-bearing and other foods
Vegetable benefit (VB)
Increase water use efficiency and
Water conservation benefit (WCB)
improve water quality
Soil and water conservation benefit Improve soil quality including soil
(SWB) resistance to erosion
Microclimate improvement benefit
Ecological
(MIB) Increase air humidity and improve air
benefit (ECB)
The comprehensive Air quality improvement benefit quality
benefit of cultivated (AQB)
land use (CB) Facilitate survival and reproduction of
Biological diversity benefit (BDB)
species
Soil sanitation benefit (SSB) Reduce and eliminate soil pollutants
Provide agricultural products and
Food security benefit (FSB)
improve social wellbeing
Labor social insurance benefit (LSIB)
Social benefit
Surplus labor social insurance benefit Safeguard social stability
(SB)
(SLSIB)
Entertainment and cultural benefit Improve living quality of the
(ECB) individual and organization
Recently, the vector algorithm has been proved to be capable of analyzing cultivated land use
benefits. According to the three-dimensional vector algorithm, the CLUB model is defined as follows:
(cid:1827)=(cid:3493)((cid:2019) (cid:1828))(cid:2870)+((cid:2019) (cid:1829))(cid:2870)+((cid:2019) (cid:1830))(cid:2870) (1)
(cid:2869) (cid:2870) (cid:2871)
where A is CB and λ1, λ2 and λ3 denote economic, ecological and social weights, respectively. B, C
and D represent economic, ecological and social benefits, respectively.
Sustainability 2017, 9, 2228 6 of 19
generate food and income via investing capital, material and technology. In the social subsystem,
cultivated land as an important asset must be used to ensure both basic subsistence needs and
national food supplies, which represent the social security role. In the ecological subsystem,
cultivated land interacts with natural resources to provide ecological services under specific
geographical conditions. Providing food, social security and ecological services in sub-CLUSs is
affected by cultivated land use functions, which are expressed as economic, social and ecological
benefits (indicated benefits refer to agricultural productions; invisible benefits are social security and
ecological service goods).

Sustainability2018,10,7 7of19
Figure 3. Agricultural economies between CA and SA. Source: Ibid.

FigurFeig4u.r(ea 4). T(ah)e Tchue lctuivltaivteadtelda lnadndu useses syysstteemm ((CCLLUUSS)) frfraammeweworokr;k (b;()b th)et hsuebs-uCbL-UCSL rUelSatrieolnasthioipn.s ChLipU.SC LUS
iscomis pcoomsepdosoefd eocfo encoomnoimc,ics,o scoiacila,la, nadnde cecoolologgiiccaall ssuubbssyysstetemms.s E.lEemleemntesn otsf tohfet heceoneocomnico msuibcsysustbemsy stem
incluidncelucdaep ictaapl,itmal,a mteartiearliaaln adndte tcehcnhonolologgicicaall ccoommppoonneenntst.s .ThTeh esoscoiacli asulbssuybssteymst eemlemeelenmts ecnotnssicsot nosf istof
agricultural operator, technician, and manager. Elements of the ecological subsystem include climate,
agriculturaloperator,technician,andmanager.Elementsoftheecologicalsubsystemincludeclimate,
hydrology, rocks, soil and organisms. Representing achievements of CLUS, agricultural production,
hydrology,rocks,soilandorganisms.RepresentingachievementsofCLUS,agriculturalproduction,
social security benefits, and ecological services are cultivated land use benefits.
socialsecuritybenefits,andecologicalservicesarecultivatedlandusebenefits.
4. MaterialsandMethods
4.1. ResearchMethods
4.1.1. CLUBModel
CLUB is resulted from interactions between human activity and cultivated land, determined
by the socio-economy and natural environment. CLUBs (Table 1) consist of the economic, social,
andecologicalbenefitsprovidedbyCLUSfunctions.
Table1.Cultivatedlandusebenefits(CLUB)inthestudy.
Target Status Factor Function
Foodbenefit(FB)
Growfood,melon,fruit,
Economic
Oil-bearingbenefit(OB) vegetables,oil-bearingand
benefit(EB)
Vegetablebenefit(VB) otherfoods
Increasewateruseefficiencyand
Waterconservationbenefit(WCB)
improvewaterquality
Improvesoilqualityincludingsoil
Soilandwaterconservationbenefit(SWB)
resistancetoerosion
Ecological
The Microclimateimprovementbenefit(MIB) Increaseairhumidityand
benefit(ECB)
improveairquality
comprehensive Airqualityimprovementbenefit(AQB)
benefitof
Facilitatesurvivaland
cultivatedland Biologicaldiversitybenefit(BDB)
reproductionofspecies
use(CB)
Reduceandeliminate
Soilsanitationbenefit(SSB)
soilpollutants
Provideagriculturalproductsand
Foodsecuritybenefit(FSB)
improvesocialwellbeing
Socialbenefit Laborsocialinsurancebenefit(LSIB)
Safeguardsocialstability
(SB)
Surpluslaborsocialinsurancebenefit(SLSIB)
Improvelivingqualityofthe
Entertainmentandculturalbenefit(ECB)
individualandorganization
Sustainability2018,10,7 8of19
Recently,thevectoralgorithmhasbeenprovedtobecapableofanalyzingcultivatedlanduse
benefits. Accordingtothethree-dimensionalvectoralgorithm,theCLUBmodelisdefinedasfollows:
(cid:113)
A = (λ B)2+(λ C)2+(λ D)2 (1)
1 2 3
whereAisCBandλ ,λ andλ denoteeconomic,ecologicalandsocialweights,respectively. B,C
1 2 3
andDrepresenteconomic,ecologicalandsocialbenefits,respectively.
4.1.2. EconomicBenefitCalculation
Input–outputisacommoneconomicmethodthatusesthedifferencebetweenrevenueandcostto
estimatethesurplusvalueofanagriculturalproduct[52].Theinput–outputmethodusesthefollowing
equationtoestimatetheeconomicbenefit:
n m
∑ ∑
B = (p ×q − a )×x /X (2)
i i ij i
i=1 j=1
whereBistheeconomicbenefit;Xandx arethetotalcultivatedlandacreageandindividualcrop
i
acreage,respectively;nisthecropnumber;p istheunitprice;q istheunityield;mistheperunit
i i
cost;anda istheunitcostofindividualcrops,whichincludesmaterialcost,laborcostandmaterial
ij
cost. Materialcostincludescostsofseeds(a ),chemicalfertilizer(a ),farmyardmanure(a),pesticide
s c f
(a ),rowcovers(a ),leaseoperatingcost(a),fuelexpenditure(a ),tools(a ),repairmaintenance(a ),
p a l fe t rm
andothercostssuchasdepreciationoffixedasset(a ). Inthispaper,wefocusonfood(e.g.,rice,corn,
df
andwheat)andoil-bearingcrops(e.g.,soybeanandsunflowerseeds)andvegetables(e.g.,Chinese
cabbage,pepper,tomato,eggplant,andtheothers).
4.1.3. EcologicalEquivalencyFactorReference
The regional ecosystem values of forest and grassland are often assessed using the global
ecosystemservicesmodel[53]. Onthisbasis,Xieetal. (2005)createdatableofChineseecosystem
servicesvalueequivalencyfactorsbasedonaquestionnairesurveying. Thetableistargetedtowards
comprehensiveregionalecologicalbenefits,whichmakefulluseofthecontributionsfromecosystem
servicefunctionsandeconomicvaluesofcultivatedland. Themathematicformulatoestimatethe
ecologicalbenefitusingthismethodisexpressedasfollows:
C = ∑m (cid:32)1 ∑n (cid:18)pi×qi×xi(cid:19)(cid:33)×u (3)
y
7 X
y=1 i=1
where C is the ecological benefit; u is the ecological equivalency factor value, including water
y
conservation(0.60),soilandwaterconservation(1.46),microclimateimprovement(0.89),airquality
improvement(0.50),biologicaldiversity(0.71)andsoilsanitation(1.64);yistheequivalencyfactor
number;andX,x,p,q,mandnarethesameastheaforementionedvariablesinEquation(2).
i i i
4.1.4. ReplacementCostforSocialBenefits
Thereplacementcostcanbeestimatedusingthesurplusandnon-usevaluesofasocialbenefit
basedonthealternativelyknownprice,includingtheshadowpricemethodandthesubstitutemarket
method. In this study, the shadow price is used to estimate food security benefits by calculating
the sum of newly reclaimed cultivated land costs and the loss values of cultivated land revenues.
Thesubstitutemarketisusedtoestimatesocialsecuritybenefitsinsteadoftheindirectpriceofsocial
securitygoods.
D = D +D +D (4)
1 2 3
Sustainability2018,10,7 9of19
(cid:18) n (cid:16) (cid:17) n (cid:18) (cid:19)
D =rc + r ∑ pi×qi×xi ×40% + ∑ pi×qi×xi ×30%
1 1 X i=1 1+(cid:18)r1 i=(cid:19)1 (1+r(cid:18)1)2 (cid:19)(cid:19) (5)
n n
+ ∑ pi×qi×xi ×20% + ∑ pi×qi×xi ×10%
i=1 (1+r1)3 i=1 (1+r1)4
D = s ×(cid:0)s −(cid:16) X×(pi×qi−ai) (cid:17)× ∑n (cid:16)pi×qi ×x (cid:17)(cid:19)
2 min ap (cid:18)(αRt×σ)×(pi×qi) i=1 X i (cid:19) (6)
+ gm×b+gw×c ×M + 1−(1+r3)−13 ×m×A
M0 1 r3
whereDisthesocialbenefit,D isthefoodsecuritybenefit,D isthesocialsecuritybenefit,D isthe
1 2 3
entertainmentandculturalbenefit,c isthereclaimedcultivatedlandcost,ristheincomerate(3.72%),
1
andr istheone-yeardiscountrateonaregularbasisfromtheBankofChina(Year2010: 4.15%). S
1 min
isthelowestsocialsecuritystandardinruralareas. αisthecoefficientofmigrantworkers’wages(0.7),
R istheannualaveragedwageofon-the-jobworkers, σ isthebalancedcoefficientofprofessional
t
farmingincome(1),g isthenetpremiumformalelaborers,g isthenetpremiumforfemalelaborers,
m w
bistheproportionofthemalepopulation,cistheproportionofthefemalepopulation,M isthebasic
1
livingexpenses,M isthemonthlypremium,misthebearingpopulationperunitofcultivatedland
0
areas,andAisthepercapitaannualtrainingfees. D isevaluatedaccordingtoEquation(2)withthe
3
equivalencyfactorvalueofD setto0.01.
3
4.2. DataSources
Social–economicdatawereacquiredthroughasurvey,onlineresources,andstatisticalyearbooks.
The statistical township data and farm data, including production, salary, and population, were
obtainedfromtheFujinStatisticalYearbookforRegionalEconomy(2011),theReclamationareasof
HeilongjiangProvinceStatisticalYearbookforSocial-Economy(2011),andtheCountiesofHeilongjiang
ProvinceStatisticalYearbookforSocial-Economy(2011). Thestatisticsforfoodpricesandcostswere
collectedfromTheNationalAgriculturalCost-benefitDataAssembly(2011). Materialconsumption
andproductsalepriceswereacquiredthroughafieldsurveyinFujin. Thelanduse(2010)vectordata
wereextractedfromremotelysenseddatathroughhuman-machineinteractiveinterpretation.
CLUBsareaffectedbytheenvironment(e.g.,temperature,precipitation),geographicalconditions
(e.g.,elevation,slope)andreligiousbeliefs. Inthisstudy,townships(CA)andstatefarms(SA)have
similarenvironmentalandgeographicalconditionsinFujinbutexistwithindifferentsocialcontexts.
Therefore,itisnecessarytocalculateandanalyzethecultivatedlandusebenefitsineachoftheseareas.
5. CultivatedLandUseBenefitDifferencesbetweenCAandSA
5.1. IntegratedBenefitDifferences
AsshowninTable2,thesocialandecologicalbenefitsare36.29%and−70.84%fromacomparison
of CA with SA while the comprehensive benefits and economic benefits are −4.97% and 5.84%.
ThecomprehensivebenefitsandsocialbenefitsofCA(10,155RMByuan/haand22,961RMByuan/ha,
respectively)aremuchhigherthanthoseofSA(9650RMByuan/haand6695RMByuan/ha),whereas
the economic benefits and ecological benefits of CA are much lower than those of SA (11,306 and
11,966inCA,respectively,versus16,166and22,032inSA;unit: RMByuan/ha).
Figure 5 shows the cultivated land use benefits among townships and state farms in 2010.
From this figure, it can be seen that obvious differences exist among townships and state farms.
Thebenefitsofthe11townshipschangedramaticallywhilethoseofthethreestatefarmsaresteady.
Comparing the maximum and minimum values, the decreases of economic, social and ecological
benefitsoftownshipsare105%,159%,61%,respectively,whilethecorrespondingreductionsofstate
farmare8%,21%,and12%.
SSuussttaaiinnaabbiilliittyy 22001187,, 190, ,27228 1100 ooff 1199
TTaabbllee 22.. CCuullttiivvaatteedd llaanndd uussee bbeenneefifittss ooff CCAA aanndd SSAA iinn 22001100..
Comparison Comparison Comparison
Comparison Comparison Comparison
Target CA (RMB SA (RMB Difference Status CA (RMB SA (RMB Difference Factor CA (RMB SA (RMB Difference
Target CyuAan(R/hMa)B ySuAan(R/hMa)B Diff(e%re)n ce Status yuCanA/h(Ra)M B yuaSnA/h(aR)M B D(%iff)e rence Factor yuanC/hAa)( RMByuan/ShAa)( RMB (%D)i fference
Yuan/ha) Yuan/ha) (%) Yuan/ha) Yuan/ha) (%) Yuan/ha) Yuan/ha) (%)
FB 8745 11,708 33.88%
EB 11,306 11,966 5.84% OB FB 6761 8745 5529 11,708 −18.223%3. 88%
EB 11,306 11,966 5.84% VB OB 35,6396 761 0 5529 - −18.22%
WCBV B 16723 5,639 2279 0 36.30% -
SWWB CB 4069 1672 5546 2279 36.29%36 .30%
MIBS WB 2481 4069 3381 5546 36.27%36 .29%
CB 10,155 9650 −4.97% ECB 16,166 22,032 36.29%
CB 10,155 9650 −4.97% AQBM IB 1394 2481 1899 3381 36.20%36 .27%
ECB 16,166 22,032 36.29%
BDBA QB 1979 1394 2697 1899 36.28%36 .20%
BDB 1979 2697 36.28%
SSB 4571 6230 36.22%
SSB 4571 6230 36.22%
FSB 3134 4247 35.51%
SB 22,961 6695 −70.84% SIBF SB 19,7993 134 2410 4247 −87.833%5. 51%
SB 22,961 6695 −70.84% ECBS IB 28 19,799 38 2410 35.71−%8 7.83%
ECB 28 38 35.71%
Note: 1 RMB yuan = 0.1595 US dollar (http://forex.hexun.com/rmbhl/#zkRate). Sources: Heilongjiang and Fujin Social-economic statistical yearbooks; agricultural
Note:1RMByuan=0.1595USdollar(http://forex.hexun.com/rmbhl/#zkRate).Sources:HeilongjiangandFujinSocial-economicstatisticalyearbooks;agriculturalcost-benefitdataare
cost-benefit data are assembly data. The difference showed that percentage of (CA-SA)/CA. The abbreviations of benefits are explained in Table 1, which includes
assemblydata.Thedifferenceshowedthatpercentageof(CA-SA)/CA.TheabbreviationsofbenefitsareexplainedinTable1,whichincludesCB,EB,ECB,SB,FB,etc.
CB, EB, ECB, SB, FB, etc.

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