Crude Oils: Production, Environmental Impacts and Global Market Challenges

127 Pages·2014·2.118 MB·English

by  Claire Valenti

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH - PHYSICAL,
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

C O
RUDE ILS

P , E
RODUCTION NVIRONMENTAL
I G
MPACTS AND LOBAL
M C
ARKET HALLENGES

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E H -
NVIRONMENTAL EALTH
P , C
HYSICAL HEMICAL
B F
AND IOLOGICAL ACTORS

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ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH - PHYSICAL,
CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

C O
RUDE ILS

P , E
RODUCTION NVIRONMENTAL
I G
MPACTS AND LOBAL
M C
ARKET HALLENGES

CLAIRE VALENTI
EDITOR

New York
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CONTENTS

Preface vii
Chapter 1 Emulsions Produced after Oil Spills:
Their Fate in Estuaries and Effects
on the Grass Shrimp, Palaemonetes pugio
and Blue Crab, Callinectes sapidus 1
Richard F. Lee, Keith Maruya,
Ulrich Warttinger, Karrie Bulski
and Anna N. Walker
Chapter 2 Improvements in the Testing of Lubricant
Oils at Low Temperatures Carried Out
by Industrial Laboratories 23
José-Alberto Maroto-Centeno,
Tomás Pérez-Gutiérrez
and Manuel Quesada-Pérez
Chapter 3 The 2008 Oil Price Swing or the Quest
for a ‘Smoking Gun’ 39
Julien Chevallier
Chapter 4 Glycerin from Biodiesel in Poultry Nutrition
as an Alternative for Reducing
the Environmental Impact 71
Verônica Maria Pereira Bernardino,
Luciana de Paula Naves
and Carolina Fontes Prezotto
vi Contents
Chapter 5 Crude Oil Production: Its Environmental
and Global Market Impact 89
Lawrence Atsegbua
and Violet Aigbokhaevbo
Chapter 6 A Fascinating Challenge for Petroleum Industry:
New Models for Predicting Fuel Economy
Performance of Lubricant Oils Used
in Automotive Engines 101
José-Alberto Maroto-Centeno,
Tomás Pérez-Gutiérrez,
Luis Fernández-Ruíz-Morón
and Manuel Quesada-Pérez
Index 107
PREFACE

The primacy of crude oil as an energy source has provided a platform for
social-economic development in most oil producing and consumer nations.
Food, housing, transportation, investment services and inflationary trend is
largely dependent on the volatility of crude oil prices. The anticipated shift in
crude oil demand premised on the United States shale exploitation and the
economic pandemonium generated in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC) has re-enacted crude oil pricing as the barometer for global
economic trend. Crude oil exploitation, production, transportation and
utilisation processes, however adversely impact on marine and coastal habitat.
Pollution and infections attributable to toxic substances from crude oil and its
derivatives can have long and short term health implications on animals and
humans. Crude oil dependence is also contributory to global warming and its
complications from climate change. This book examines the environmental
and global market impact of crude oil production, analyses attempts to curb
inherent challenges through energy efficiency and the development of
renewable alternative energy sources.
Chapter 1 - Stable water-in-oil emulsions, often formed after oil spills,
contribute to the difficulties of cleanup due to their persistence and high
viscosity. The objectives of the present study were to determine the fate and
effects on grass shrimp (Palaemonetes pugio) and blue crabs (Callinectes
sapidus) of such emulsions after they enter estuaries. To achieve this
objective, non-emulsified oil and stable emulsions, formed from Kuwait crude
oil, were added to estuarine mesocosms, followed by exposure of grass shrimp
(Palaemonetes pugio) to treated sediments. The polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbon (PAHs) concentrations in the mesocosm with emulsified oil
decreased from 284 to 7 µg/g sediment in 56 days, while in the mesocosm
viii Claire Valenti
with non-emulsified oil the PAHs decreased from 271 to 0.2 µg/g sediment
over this same time period. Reproduction parameters (ovary development,
embryo production) of grass shrimp were affected as result of exposure to
sediments with emulsified oil, including no embryo production (Day 14
sediments) and reduced embryo production (Day 36 sediments). In contrast,
grass shrimp reproduction parameters were not affected after exposure to
sediments with the same concentration of non-emulsified oil. It is suggested
that the persistence of emulsified oil explains the observed effects. Exposure
of grass shrimp embryos to pore water from emulsified oil sediments resulted
in significantly more DNA strand breaks and reduced embryo hatching rates
compared to reference controls or to sediments with non-emulsified oil. In
addition to work with oiled sediments, a histological study was conducted on
blue crabs fed food containing emulsified oil. The most notable effect was
distended hemocytes with large amounts of glycoproteins in the
hepatopancreas. It is speculated that crabs with these distended hemocytes are
less able to deal with invading microbes, since crab hemocytes are an
important part of the crab‟s immune system. This study suggests that the
entrance of water-in-oil emulsions into estuaries can effect grass shrimp
reproduction. Procedures that inhibit emulsion formation, thus preventing
emulsified oil from entering estuaries, should be considered after oil spills.
Chapter 2 - The formation of wax crystals in engine oils at low
temperatures due to poor solubility of paraffins profoundly affects the oil
rheology. In fact, gelation occurs when growing paraffin crystals interlock and
form a volume-spanning crystal network which entrains the remaining liquid
oil among the crystals. These macroscopic structures may cause yield stress.
Currently, the rapidly increasing use of mineral base oils having considerably
higher paraffinic content than past solvent-refined base oils calls for careful
identification of gelation tendency because gelation can produce a serious
failure in the mechanism of engines called air-binding.
Nowadays, there are two different methods commonly used to evaluate
gelation: the Mini Rotary Viscometer test (MRV), ASTM D 4684 and the
Scanning Brookfield test (SBT), ASTM D 5133. The test ASTM D 4684 is
incorporated in the SAE J300 viscosity classification and both test methods are
part of ILSAC GF-5 and GF-6 standards. Obviously, the simultaneous use of
two test methods (which could not be correlated) to evaluate the same
phenomena (gelation) would have the risk of reducing the range of lubricants
available to the formulator.
This work carries out an experimental study of both tests by means of the
use of a carefully selected set of lubricant oils. Preliminary results show the