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In CroMroad,* to 7,^/rt/n, Yehuda Nevo and
Judith Koren offer a cohtrovei'sitd explora
tion of the early history of Islam, present
ing a revolutionary theory of the origins
and development of the Islamic state and
religion from the early 7th to the mid-8th
centirry C.E. Many Western scholars recog
nize the difficulties of accepting the valid-
ity, as historical evidence, of th^ huge body
of Muslim literature, with its detailed
account of the rise oif Islam in the Arabian
Peninsula and the subsequent, r'eligiously
inspired invasion of the settled lands be
yond; for this literature only started to be
written 150 years after the period It pur
ports to describe. But until now, there
was little with which to replace it. Nevo
and Koren examine in detail the available
conteinporai’y evidence, most of which has
not been seriously taken into account by
most historians of early Islam. It includes
official documents and inscriptions of the
early Arab State; archaeological excava
tions and artifacts; legends on coins; and
hundreds of Arabic rock inscriptions.
Based on their analysis of this evi
dence, Nevo and Koren outline an ab
sorbing and compelling rethinking of the
early histoiy of Islam. They argue that the
Byzantine Empire withdrew before the
Arab Takeover; that the resulting power
vacuum led to competition among local
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CROSSROADS TO
Negev Archeological Project for Study of
Ancient Arab Desert Culture
CROSSROADS TO ISLAM
The Origins of the Arab Religion
and the Arab State
Yehuda D. Nevo and Judith Koren
Prometheus Books
59 John Glenn Drive
Amherst, New York 14228-2197
Published 2003 by Prometheus Books
Crossroads to Islam: The Origins of the Arab Religion and the Arab State. Copyright ©
2003 by Yehuda D. Nevo and Judith Koren. All rights reserved. No part of this publica
tion may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, digital, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, or con
veyed via the Internet or a Web site without prior written permission of the publisher, ex
cept in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.
Inquiries should be addressed to
Prometheus Books
59 John Glenn Drive
Amherst, New York 14228-2197
VOICE: 7I6-69I-0I33, ext. 207
FAX: 716-564-2711
WWW.PROMETHEUSBOOKS.COM
07 06 05 04 03 54321
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nevo, Yehuda D.
Crossroads to Islam : the origins of the Arab religion and the Arab state / Yehuda
D. Nevo and Judith Koren.
p. cm. — (Islamic studies)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-59102-083-2 (cloth)
I. Islam—Origin. 2. Islam—History. 3. Arabs—Religion—History. 4. Arabian
Peninsula—History. 5. Byzantine Empire—History—527-1081. I. Koren, Judith,
1948- 11. Title. III. Islamic studies (Amherst, N.Y.)
BP55.N48 2003
297'.09'021—dc21
2003050003
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments Vll
Introduction: The Traditional Account and Its Problems 1
Part I: The Background
1. The Foundering of Empire 17
2. The Byzantine East on the Eve of Invasion 27
3. The Role of the Church 51
4. The Demographic Background 67
Part II: The Takeover and the Rise of the
Arab State
1. The Takeover 89
2. Political Events: The Evidence of Contemporary Texts 103
3. The Evidence of the Coins 137
4. The Foundation of the Ajrab State: A Suggested
Reconstruction 155
Part III: The Arab Religion
1. The Religious Background 173
2. Religious Events: The Evidence of Contemporary Texts 207
3. The Chosen Prophet 247
v
4. The Official Faith: Mohammedanism and Walld’s ^Islam 271
5. From Monotheism to Islam: Religious Development
in the Popular Inscriptions 297
6. Scripture and Salvation History 337
Appendices
A. Qu^ranic and Non-Qur^^nic Versions of Locutions 355
B. Chronology of al-Sam 361
C. Appendix of Inscriptions 365
Bibliography 427
Index 451
Maps
1.2.1 The pre-Diocletianic provincial borders 28
1.2.2 The provincial borders after Diocletian’s changes 29
1.2.3 The provincial borders in the late 4th century c.E. 31
1.2.4 The provincial borders in the 5th century,
after ca. 425 C.E. 32
II.3.1 Mint towns of Arab-Byzantine coins 146
III.3.1 Minting activities around Bisapur 253
VI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The publication of this book was greatly delayed by the tragic and untimely
death after long illness of its principal author, Yehuda D. Nevo. Now that it
has at last come to press, it is a pleasure to acknowledge the help of the many
people who contributed, in many and various ways, to its completion, giving
generously of their time and attention. Professor Shlomo Pines unfailingly
found time for discussion, and extended to us the hospitality of his home.
Professor Sebastian Brock received from us, out of the blue, the material on
the 7th-century Syriac sources, read it promptly, and sent us a detailed
critique full of useful notes. Professor Philip Grierson, whom we placed in
the same predicament regarding the material on the Byzantine and Arab
coins, likewise answered our questions and added many helpful comments.
Drs. Lawrence Conrad, Patricia Crone, Gerald Hawting and Robert
Hoyland devoted hours, on their visits to Jerusalem, to discussions which
we found fruitful. Dr. Crone, especially, took a great interest in the progress
of our work and was always willing to argue the viewpoint of the opposition;
and Dr. Hawting read, and commented closely on, early versions of many of
the chapters. Robert Hoyland sent us early drafts of chapters of his doctoral
thesis as they became available, as well as the finished thesis, all of which was
of great help to our analysis of the contemporary non-Arab literary sources.
Professor Amnon Ben-Tor of the Department of Archaeology of the Hebrew
University, as well as other colleagues from the Department, was always
ready to discuss the archaeological findings. Finally, Ibn Warraq took an
interest in the research as this book neared completion; his encouragement
and enthusiasm is gratefully acknowledged.
It is a pleasure also to thank those who helped in material ways. Work on
the deciphering and dating of the four hundred inscriptions transcribed
during 1981-1982, and an additional two hundred found in later years, was
partly funded by the Department of Islamic Studies of the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, and by a research grant from the Israel Academy
Vll
Crossroads to Islam
of Sciences and Humanities. In this regard we owe aspecial debt to Professor
M. J. Kister, who, although himself a lifelong “traditionalist,”f urthered the
research for this book, and work on the inscriptions, in every way possible:
discussions, advice, help in deciphering difficult inscriptions, invitations to
Yehuda Nevo to speak at conferences, and help with funding. In 1985 the
Center for Social Studies of the Blaustein Institute for Desert Research at
Ben-Gurion College, Sede Boqer, appointed Yehuda Nevo as Research
Fellow, and from then until his death in 1992 provided working space for the
project close to the areas studied, and some financial support. We owe
especial thanks to Professor Emmanuel Marx, then head of the Center, for
thus placing the Center’s facilities at his disposal. And the members of
Kibbutz Sede Boqer, which is situated very close to the main archaeological
site, accepted Yehuda Nevo as a guest from 1983 until his death in 1992,
thereby also greatly aiding the archaeological fieldwork. But he always
considered that his greatest debt was to Dalia Heftman, for her unfailing
encouragement and support over many years. It was Dalia, also, who
handled all the technical side of preparing the manuscript and graphics for
press: without her great technical skill and countless hours of effort, it would
not have appeared in its present form.
Finally, Judith Koren would like to thank her family, for stoically
bearing, over the years, the impediments to daily life that this work entailed.
And finally, the University of Haifa Library, for making available to her, as
a visiting researcher, the library’s excellent collection, without which this
book could not have been written.
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