Table Of ContentCritical Pedagogy for Early Childhood
and Elementary Educators
Lois McFadyen Christensen (cid:129) Jerry Aldridge
Critical Pedagogy for Early
Childhood and Elementary
Educators
Lois McFadyen Christensen Jerry Aldridge
Ph.D, Professor Ed. D, Professor Emeritus
School of Education UAB
University of Alabama
OMEP Representative to UN/UNICEF
Birmingham, AL, USA
North American OMEP Representative
to OAS
New York, NY
USA
ISBN 978-94-007-5394-5 ISBN 978-94-007-5395-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-5395-2
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012948710
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Preface
Introduction
How might educators develop a sense of social justice as teachers of young children in
elementary schools? A more speci fi c, central question that you might utilize to guide
the study of this text would be something like this: How do early and elementary
educators and candidates develop, connect to, examine, and enact the tenets of critical
pedagogy in their lives and extend critical pedagogy into curriculum and instruction
with young children?
In order to meet the fundamentals of social justice and the diversities that all young
children bring to into classrooms across public educational systems, the study of
critical pedagogy assists early childhood and elementary teachers to discern the
myriad democratic dynamics involved in K–6 elementary educative settings (Kincheloe,
2008). Not only is the landscape of social and economic life changing in the twenty-
fi rst century, now education has the challenge of preparing children for workplaces.
Knowledge and skills rapidly become outmoded, and diversity in every sense of the
word is commonplace. McLaren (2007) prompts early and elementary educators to
openly and critically confront the complexities of our diverse society, to investigate
the foundation of and inequality and injustice in our lives, and then help our students
to do the same. McLaren (2007) states, “As teachers we must face our own culpability
in the reproduction of inequality in our teaching, and that we must strive to develop
a pedagogy equipped to provide both intellectual and moral resistance to oppression,
one that extends the concept of pedagogy beyond the mere transmission of knowledge
and skills and the concept of morality beyond interpersonal relations. Pedagogy in
this instance must be linked to class struggle and the politics of liberation. This is
what critical pedagogy is all about” (p. 48).
The need for citizens who are self-directed, lifelong learners, and who think
morally, justly, and democratically is becoming increasingly apparent. When focusing
on broad-ranging educational outcomes, there emerges another de fi nitive need. That
is a well-informed citizenry that is able to thrive as quickly as social and economic
environments change. Teacher educators have as a challenge to assist teachers of
v
vi Preface
young children, candidates, and the young children that they teach to profoundly
consider, rethink, accept, promote, and proceed to enact critical pedagogical practice
in primary and elementary school settings (Giroux & McLaren, 1992).
The Testing Paradox
Despite this auspicious endeavor, Al fi e Kohn (1993) illustrates the existing extreme
paradox. Schools are still hampered by outmoded practices. Elementary schools are
often the least democratic places within the democratic republic of the United States.
Grimly, democracy, civic competence, and its involvement are now acknowledged
as anecdotal to elementary curriculum and seemingly of limited educational bene fi t.
It is seldom if ever taught. In 2007, the National Council for the Social Studies
(NCSS, 2007) issued a position statement about the neglect of teaching civics and
social studies in the primary and elementary grades and overall erosion of the content
area due to the No Child Left Behind Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2002).
No Child Left Behind Act (U.S. Department of Education, 2002) is an economic
scheme and moves funding from schools to private, for pro fi t institutions (Bracey,
2009; McLaren, 2007; Nichols & Berliner, 2007). Some elementary schools spend an
inordinate amount of time in test preparation, like automated plants, with children
bubbling in Scantron™ sheets in order to pass tests with items and questions
deve loped by noneducators for extreme amounts of money. Literacy, math, and now
science, added in 2006, are tested. Yes, and these tests are administered over a 2- or
3-day period. Do you think that an academic year’s worth of young children’s learning
can be measured by one half of a week sitting for tests?
Where is civics on the mandated test? Social studies and history are not evident
on any of the tests. Why are these disciplines eliminated? These are questions for
you and your colleagues or class to discuss. This irrational educative legislation and
practice in the United States has vast and discordant outcomes. How are young
children and youth prepared to comprehend fundamental civics, history, geography,
economics, and sociology as fundamental concepts? How will our youngest citizens
begin to comprehend enough civic competence to maintain a free and just society
for our nation within a global community (NCSS, 2007)? Teachers’ direct and
present didactic information for students’ recall are still the methods of choice for
many teachers, despite the now wide range of exciting possibilities that have the
potential to enrich the educational experience of students and provide teachers with
greater levels of professional and personal satisfaction (Aldridge & Goldman, 2007;
Fullan, 2007).
Elementary Student-Centered Teaching Practice
for Democratic Social Justice
Elementary youth, teacher candidates, and teachers merit learning in powerful, in-
depth fashions, combining their interests alongside teachers who facilitate active, social,
cognitive, and affective growth. These are characteristics enacted by humanistic,
Preface vii
re fl ective primary and elementary teachers in democratic settings. Humanistic
teachers offer democratic learning experiences characterized by exploration and
inquiry within a challenging and caring environment where students have choices
about curriculum, problem solving, and decision-making.
There are some primary and elementary schools that are now returning to more
humane and child-centered practices shaped from the bygone progressive era (Kohn,
2008; Mitchell, 1934; Young, 1901). Hence, nurturing early educators’ growth is
featured toward acceptance of every form of diversity representative of each and
every classmate around the world. Through re fl ection, discussion, demonstration,
and immersion, about local, community, and global social action topics, enable
learners to apply what they have learned. Educators and teacher candidates who
read this text, consider the content, re fl ect, connect re fl ections to life and teaching
contexts, and ultimately plan and enact approaches to sound elementary pedagogy
while implementing humanistic, innovative, child-focused teaching for social justice
are more likely to become critical pedagogues.
Elementary Students as a Part of a Global Citizenry
Unmistakably, the past enlightens our way into the future. As Kierkegaard reminds
us, life can only be understood backward. Yet, life is lived forward. Consequently,
opportunities for early and elementary educators to move past re fl ection and enact
critical pedagogy establish memories for youngsters to pass through the windows
that enlighten the future. To comprehend social action more deeply, it is key that
young students develop as responsive learners through circumstances that offer
them active, social transformational learning. Having recollections about that
involvement creates a personal formative history (Levstik & Barton, 2010). For
young students to become fully aware of just situations in the present, and having
expe riences with active social action promote and engender the development of
personal moral codes as citizens in the local, national, and global society. This is the
essence and nature of learning and enacting critical pedagogy for social action with
young children (McLaren, 2007). Are there socioeconomic and class issues that
enter into where elementary children attend school? This is just a problem-posing
question to begin the discussion.
Organization of the Text
The chapters in this text are arranged in an organized fashion to build on the reader’s
knowledge as critical theoretical understandings are systematically considered,
accommodated, and enacted. The text encompasses ten chapters. Each builds on the
next. Readers consequently should be able to challenge their own thinking and
teaching, in order to enact a more just and critical pedagogy for transformational
teaching. This in turn has potential to perpetuate social justice ideals with a younger,
more malleable citizenry, who will lead us into a more enlightened present and future.
viii Preface
What Is Critical Pedagogy?
Chapter 2 is designed to discuss the de fi nition and nature of critical pedagogy from
a practical standpoint for elementary teachers (Vasquez, 2006). This chapter also
seeks to defi n e and explain the numerous terms that pervade critical pedagogical
literature. Critical pedagogy has its own vocabulary, and we present the most salient
and used terms in the fi eld. A brief discussion of conscientization, codi fi cation, cul-
tural capital, dialectic, diversity, hegemony, hidden curriculum, patriarchy, and
praxis is necessary in order to illuminate critical pedagogy and enter in the
dialogue.
Being Critical of Critical Pedagogy
Critical pedagogy has its critics. There are three major criticisms that permeate the
literature. We believe these criticisms have to be addressed. In Chap. 3, we pose
solutions to these criticisms that will help elementary teachers move beyond the prob-
lems of critical pedagogy and work toward positive solutions.
Assumptions: Where Are We?
Critical theory is a vast and expansive discipline with multiple points of view. However,
most critical theorists share three assumptions (Kessler & Swadener, 1992). These
include the following:
(cid:129) Certain forms of knowledge are valued over others.
(cid:129) School knowledge belongs to a particular group.
(cid:129) Those in power use their position to maintain their dominant position in society.
This chapter considers each of these assumptions and ways to transcend and
transform them. It assists readers to consider where their assumptions lie and what
underlies them. Readers begin to deconstruct assumptions constructed through the
myriad contexts from familial living to institutional formation.
Identity
Students begin rudimentary refl ection about experiences of citizenship in action
and then move beyond to begin enacting citizenship that is contextually connected
to democracy and humankind. Traditional classroom learning is predominantly an
autocratic endeavor. Inspiration, creativity, and intelligence of teachers and students
Preface ix
alike are snuffed out while textbooks the peddlers of scripted behaviorist modes of
learning proliferate and make millions. Teachers are “deskilled” rather than profes-
sionalized (Aldridge & Goldman, 2007). Educators live and teach in contradiction
and paradox! How can society expect learners to describe democracy and graduate
from school knowing how to subsist within one with minimal experience?
Democracy is the principled ideal in the USA. Except all too often the ideals of
democracy are violated. There is a huge chasm between valuing democracy and the
reality of how the pluralistic society in the USA lives. Racism and sexism ram-
pantly exist. Because of perpetuated stereotypical perceptions, gender discrimina-
tion relies on restricted roles and educational and occupational options for women
students.
So foremost when the present educational situation sounds so dire, how do edu-
cators begin to see the contradictions? (Posner, 1992) Subsequently, how do they
move into a more democratic approach to teaching and learning that is the experi-
ential heart of transformational social action? The fundamental solution is to con-
nect teachers and students to people and organizations where their actions can make
a difference. Once that is achieved, personal interest and social relationships become
“habits of mind,” which do secure social change. Making a difference in a local or
global setting is transformational social action, the essence living.
Praxis of Critical Pedagogy
Praxis is the interplay between theory and practice. As critical theory is applied to
pedagogy, classroom practices change. As change occurs, together, elementary
teachers and students begin to carefully re fl ect and reexamine cherished belief
systems. How to navigate between theory and practice is the focus of this
chapter.
If learners do not have fi rsthand experience with social action, how will they
internalize citizenship or come to understand democracy? Schools in the USA are
often the least democratic places. Democracy is seldom the way in which teachers
plan, implement lessons, or evaluate learning. And most of the time, the regime of
directed learning is expected and ordered by administrators.
Kincheloe (2001) describes how education can be civically challenging and
result in social action. His conception includes teachers assisting learners to develop
enough content knowledge to be able to analyze and construct self and social know-
ledge. Consequently, students would have the cognitive tools to knowledgably ques-
tion and become self-directed. It is peculiar that so few schools administrators seem
unaware that within the walls of learning lies the training ground for democracy. If
students are involved in transformational social action, students envision belonging
locally and globally. Democracy becomes authentic. Students see how democracy is
connected to justice and equality. Social change is possible (Kincheloe, 2001).
Schools of today focus on academics to the detriment of personal development and
