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Critical Issues in Early Israelite History
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Bulletin for Biblical Research Supplements
Editor
Richard S. Hess,
Denver Seminary
Associate Editor
Craig L. Blomberg,
Denver Seminary
Advisory Board
Leslie C. Allen I. Howard Marshall
Fuller Theological Seminary University of Aberdeen
Donald A. Carson Elmer A. Martens
Trinity Evangelical Divinity Mennonite Brethren Biblical
School Seminary
Donald A. Hagner Bruce K. Waltke
Fuller Theological Seminary Reformed Theological Seminary
Gerald F. Hawthorne Edwin M. Yamauchi
Wheaton College Miami University
Karen H. Jobes
Wheaton College
1 Bridging the Gap: Ritual and Ritual Texts in the Bible, by Gerald A.
Klingbeil
2 War in the Bible and Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century,
edited by Richard S. Hess and Elmer A. Martens
3 Critical Issues in Early Israelite History, edited by Richard S. Hess,
Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr.
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Critical Issues in
Early Israelite History
Edited by
Richard S. Hess, Gerald A. Klingbeil,
and Paul J. Ray Jr.
Winona Lake, Indiana
Eisenbrauns
2008
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ç Copyright 2008 by Eisenbrauns.
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
www.eisenbrauns.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Critical issues in early Israelite history / edited by Richard S. Hess,
Gerald A. Klingbeil, and Paul J. Ray Jr.
p. cm. — (Bulletin for biblical research supplements ; 3)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-57506-804-6 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1. Palestine—Antiquities—Congresses. 2. Bronze age—
Palestine—Congresses. 3. Iron age—Palestine—Congresses.
4. Excavations (Archaeology)—Palestine—Congresses. 5. Bible.
O.T.—Antiquities—Congresses. 6. Bible. O.T.—Criticism,
interpretation, etc.—Congresses. I. Hess, Richard S.
II. Klingbeil, Gerald A., 1964– III. Ray, Paul J.
DS111.C75 2008
221.9u5—dc22
2008040324
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of the
American National Standard for Information Sciences—Permanence of Paper
for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.†‰
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Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Part 1
Textual Studies
The Rhetorical Structuring of the Joshua Conquest Narratives . . 3
K. Lawson Younger Jr.
The Jericho and Ai of the Book of Joshua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Richard S. Hess
Merenptah’s Reference to Israel:
Critical Issues for the Origin of Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Michael G. Hasel
The Persian Period and the Origins of Israel:
Beyond the “Myths” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Efraín Velázquez II
Part 2
Archaeological Studies,
Broader Context
Classical Models for the Appearance of Israel in Palestine . . . . . . . 79
Paul J. Ray Jr.
The Appearance of Israel in Canaan in Recent Scholarship . . . . . . 95
Patrick Mazani
“Between North and South”:
The Archaeology of Religion in Late Bronze Age
Palestine and the Period of the Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Gerald A. Klingbeil
v
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vi
The Context of Early Israel Viewed through the Archaeology
of Northern Mesopotamia and Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Mark W. Chavalas
Part 3
Archaeological Studies,
Regional Contexts
The Survey of Manasseh and the Origin of the
Central Hill Country Settlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Ralph K. Hawkins
Israelite Settlement at the Margins of the
Northern Hill Country: Connections to
Joshua and Judges from Tell Dothan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Daniel M. Master
Rewriting Philistine History: Recent Trends in
Philistine Archaeology and Biblical Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Steven M. Ortiz
The Search for Joshua’s Ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Bryant G. Wood
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Index of Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
Index of Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
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Foreword
One of the most frequently discussed issues among archaeologists and bib-
lical scholars is the origin of the Israelites. The current discussion surround-
ing their origin results from the increasing number of data produced by ar-
chaeologists and the assessment of these data. Earlier scholars did not clearly
perceive the complexity of biblical stories. They not only are abbreviated and
contain few historical markers but they also focus primarily on issues outside
the test of scholarship. Whereas only a few decades ago some of the biblical
stories, such as the conquest, were heralded as verified by archaeology, recent
scholars have reassessed the veracity of these stories and the reality of the
characters involved. The existence of eras such as the “patriarchal period”
that had once been seen as largely historical was denied in the 1970s by Tho-
mas L. Thompson and John Van Seters, and so began a steady march of succes-
sive waves of challenges to the historical reliability of the biblical text.
It was inevitable that the negativity of scholars would arrive at the door of
the Israelites. The Israelites, according to the biblical text, were descendants
of Jacob, the last of the patriarchs. He moved his family to Egypt to survive a
famine and, in time, his children became slaves, eventually leaving Egypt to
return to Canaan, their ancestral home. It has become popular to conclude
that, if the patriarchs are fictional, so must be their progeny. New tribes, such
as the “Proto-Israelites” (that is, Canaanites who, at a later time, became Is-
raelites) have been envisioned as replacing the Israelites featured in the bibli-
cal text.
Anyone who has tried to keep up with the scholarly output on the emer-
gence of Israel cannot help but notice the lack of agreement among the vari-
ous scholars. That modern scholarship is in disarray on the subject of the
Israelites is obvious, and the reason for this fact is even more obvious: the ma-
jor source of information about earliest Israel is the Bible. Indeed, if it were
not for the Bible, there would be no debate about the origins or identity of the
Israelites. On the other hand, it can seem that the only thing about which
critics of the Bible agree is that the Bible provides little or no evidence about
the Israelites.
Two points should be made about the theories presented by the critics.
First, their theories are sometimes antonyms of the biblical accounts. Some-
how, theories that are the opposite of the written record seem to those who
propose them to be more scientific than the events suggested by the biblical
writers, especially if presented in trendy sociological terms. Second, their
theories claim to be built on archaeology. According to the critics, they fill in
vii
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viii Foreword
the missing details about the Israelites not with theoretical possibilities but
with the discoveries of archaeology. That this statement can be challenged is
demonstrated by consideration of archaeological finds. A prime example is the
late-13th-century b.c. stele of Pharaoh Merenptah. Because this inscription is
a problem to some Israelite settlement theories that do not recognize the exis-
tence of Israel at this time, the critics reinterpret this archaeological evidence.
Consider also the Tel Dan inscription. The most logical and likely interpre-
tation is that it is the earliest reference to the “House of David” discovered in
a nonbiblical source. However, for those who hold to the view that neither the
biblical David nor his kingdom existed, these words are interpreted as some-
thing other than a reference to David and his dynasty. Is this for no reason
other than that their theory says his kingdom did not exist?
Some who criticize the biblical text effectively disavow archaeology by its
selective use. They emphasize the archaeological surveys, which are largely
mute and open to multiple interpretations. In contrast, they view texts as ob-
scure or beyond understanding. Ancient texts are then disavowed as unhelpful
and arcane.
It is ironic when postmodern writers think themselves able to properly eval-
uate an ancient piece of literature in terms of its truthfulness, while denying
the existence of absolute truth.
In this short foreword, it is impossible to consider all the ways scholars have
addressed the relationship between archaeology and the Bible. At present,
some archaeologists assume that their discipline is a reliable tool for verifying
written records.
This book takes a different track. It allows all the ancient literary evidence,
including the Bible, a say in the process of inquiry about the emergence of the
Israelites. Its authors also let the evidence of archaeology speak to this issue,
even if it proves inconvenient. This began with a group of scholars who believe
that the biblical text can be helpful in understanding the emergence of ancient
Israel in Canaan. These scholars came together on March 26–28, 2004, for a
weekend of reflection and interaction. The result is the present volume. It ar-
gues that the Bible can provide help in understanding the Israelites, their ori-
gins, and their history. These essays are evidence of this assertion.
David Merling
Former Curator, Horn Archaeological Museum
Andrews University
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Abbreviations
General
AT Alalakh Texts
b.c.e. Before the Common Era
c.e. Common Era
CVC consonant-vowel-consonant
Dtr Deuteronomistic History
EA El-Amarna tablet
EB Early Bronze
LB Late Bronze
LXX Septuagint
MB Middle Bronze
MT Masoretic Text
niv New International Version
nkjv New King James Version
nrsv New Revised Standard Version
OG Old Greek
P Priestly writer/source
RIH Ras Ibn-Hani Tablets
RS Ras Shamra Tablets
rsv Revised Standard Version
Reference Works
AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research
ABD Freedman, D. N., editor. The Anchor Bible Dictionary. 6 vols. Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1992
ABRL Anchor Bible Reference Library
ADAJ Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan
AfO Archiv für Orientforschung
ÄgAbh Ägyptologische Abhandlungen
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
ÄL Ägypten und Levante
ANESS Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement
ANET Pritchard, J. B., editor. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old
Testament. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969
AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament
ARM Parrot, A., and Dossin, G. Archives royales de Mari. Paris: Imprimerie
Nationalé, 1950–
ASOR Books American Schools of Oriental Research Books
Atiqôt Journal of the Israel Department of Antiquities
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