Table Of ContentK12738_cover 10/4/11 1:11 PM Page 1
C M Y CM MY CY CMY K
FORENSICS & CRIMINAL JUSTICE Shaler
Crime Scene
Forensics
A Scientific Method Approach
Bridging the gap between practical crime scene investigation and scientific theory, Crime Scene
Forensics: A Scientific Method Approach maintains that crime scene investigations are intensely
intellectual exercises that marry scientific and investigative processes. Success in this field
requires experience, creative thinking, logic, and the correct application of the science and the
C
scientific method.
r
Emphasizing the necessary thought processes for applying science to the investigation, i
m
this text covers:
• The general scene investigation process, including definitions and philosophy as well as
e
hands-on considerations
• Archiving the crime scene through photography, sketching, and video S
• Managing the crime scene investigation—the glue that holds the investigation together
c
• Searching the crime scene—the logical byproduct of archiving and management
e
• Impression/pattern evidence, including fingerprints, bloodstains, footwear impressions,
n
and tire track impressions
e
• The biological crime scene and recognizing, collecting, and preserving biological evidence,
including forensic entomology and evidence found at bioweapon scenes
F
• The fundamental principles of evidence as expressed by the Principle of Divisible Matter
o
and the Locard Exchange Principle: every touch leaves a trace
r
• Trace evidence, including glass, paint, and soil
e
• Shooting incident scenes, with discussion of bullet paths and gunshot residue
n
The final section examines fire scenes, quality assurance issues, and methods for collecting and s
preserving various evidence types not covered in other chapters. i
c
The delicate balance among logic, science, and investigative activity must be understood in order s
to successfully work a crime scene. Enhanced by more than 200 color images, this volume provides
investigators and students with the tools to grasp these critical concepts, paving an expeditious
path to the truth.
Robert C. Shaler
K12738
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
an informa business New York, NY 10017
www.crcpress.com 2 Park Square, Milton Park w w w. c r c p r e s s . c o m
Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK
Composite
Crime Scene
Forensics
A Scientific Method
Approach
TThhiiss ppaaggee iinntteennttiioonnaallllyy lleefftt bbllaannkk
Crime Scene
Forensics
A Scientific Method
Approach
Robert C. Shaler
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2012 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Version Date: 20120110
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4398-9773-7 (eBook - PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
ity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright
holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
form has not been obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or uti-
lized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopy-
ing, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without written permission from the
publishers.
For permission to photocopy or use material electronically from this work, please access www.copyright.com (http://
www.copyright.com/) or contact the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc. (CCC), 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923,
978-750-8400. CCC is a not-for-profit organization that provides licenses and registration for a variety of users. For
organizations that have been granted a photocopy license by the CCC, a separate system of payment has been arranged.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Acknowledgments xxv
Author xxvii
Part I
The PhilosoPhy And essenTiAls of
Crime sCene forensiCs
1 Crime scene forensics: Philosophy, Practice, and Teaching 3
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Why Investigate the Crime Scene? 4
1.3 Who Should Investigate Scenes of Crimes? 5
1.3.1 Crime Scene Investigative Paradigms 6
1.3.1.1 The Current Paradigm 7
1.3.1.2 An Evolving Paradigm 7
1.4 Definitions: Crime Scene, Forensic Science, Criminalistics,
Forensics 1 3
1.4.1 Crime Scene 1 3
1.4.2 Forensic Science 1 4
1.4.3 Criminalistics 1 5
1.4.3.1 The Forensic DNA Biologist 1 8
1.4.3.2 The Medical Examiner 1 8
1.4.3.3 The Forensic Street Drug Chemist 1 8
1.4.3.4 The Bloodstain Pattern Analysis Expert 1 8
1.4.3.5 The Crime Scene Investigator 1 9
1.4.4 Forensics 1 9
1.5 The Concept of Evidence 2 0
1.5.1 Perceptions of Evidence 2 0
1.5.2 Divisible Matter and the Transfer of Evidence 2 2
1.5.3 The Human Mind and the Recognition of Evidence 2 3
1.5.4 The Legal Perspective/Connection 2 4
1.5.5 Defining Evidence 2 5
1.6 Instruction: A Philosophy 26
1.6.1 Structure of the Instruction 2 7
References 2 9
v
vi Contents
2 The scientific method, Bias, and reasoning 31
2.1 Introduction 3 1
2.2 The Scientific Method: Scene Scientists and Scene Investigators 3 2
2.3 Bias in Scene Investigations 3 7
2.3.1 Case Example 1 4 0
2.3.2 Case Example 2 4 0
2.4 Reasoning 44
References 4 6
3 management Basics: The investigative Glue 4 7
3.1 Introduction 4 7
3.1.1 Teaching Crime Scene Management 4 7
3.1.2 The Learning Process 4 8
3.2 The Responding Officer 4 9
3.2.1 Observations 49
3.2.2 Actions 5 1
3.2.3 Documentation 5 3
3.3 The Team Leader: Managing the Scene Investigation 5 3
3.3.1 Subteams 5 5
3.4 The Scene Processing Cascade 57
3.4.1 Integrating the Scientific Method 6 0
References 6 2
4 The fundamental Principles of evidence 6 3
4.1 Introduction 6 3
4.2 The Locard Exchange Principle: “Every Touch Leaves a Trace” 6 3
4.3 Divisible Matter 6 5
4.4 Evidence Dynamics 6 8
4.5 Crime Scene Elements 69
4.5.1 The Macroscene 70
4.5.2 The Microscene: Trace Evidence or Locard Elements 73
4.5.2.1 The Transfer of Microscene Elements 7 5
4.6 Scene Scenario 80
References 8 4
5 searching the scene: logic in Action 8 7
5.1 Introduction 8 7
5.2 Processing versus Investigation 89
5.3 Defining the Search 9 0
5.3.1 Effective Management 9 1
5.3.2 Nature of the Scene 9 1
5.3.3 Logic 9 2
5.3.4 Systematic 9 3
5.3.5 Creative Thinking—Out of the Box 93
Contents vii
5.4 Scene Search Methods 9 3
5.4.1 The Line (Grid) Methods 95
5.4.1.1 The Sequence of an Outdoor Search—Archiving
and Searching Using the Grid Method 9 7
5.4.1.2 Zone and Point-to-Point Searches 9 8
5.4.1.3 The Link Method 100
5.4.1.4 Ray or Wheel Search 100
5.5 Employing On-Scene Technology and/or Statements 101
5.6 Pressures at the Scene 101
5.6.1 Constraints 102
5.7 Archiving and Searching Common Scene Types 102
5.8 Technology to Aid Searching 102
5.9 Searching for Trace Evidence—Overview Considerations 102
References 105
Part II
forensiC ArChivinG: TodAy’s eye
for The fuTure
6 The Principles of forensic Photography 109
6.1 Introduction to Forensic Archiving 109
6.1.1 Passive Archiving 110
6.1.2 Active Archiving 110
6.2 Techniques of Forensic Archiving 111
6.2.1 Digital Forensic Photography (Photographic Archiving) 111
6.2.2 The Purpose of Forensic Photography 112
6.2.3 Critical Aspects of Forensic Photography 113
6.3 The SLR Digital Camera 113
6.4 Essential Skills of Forensic Photography 115
6.4.1 Focus: “If It’s Not in Focus, the Rest Doesn’t Matter” 115
6.4.2 The Correct Forensic Exposure 116
6.4.2.1 Equivalent Exposures 117
6.4.3 Aperture 118
6.4.3.1 Telling the Scene’s Story: The Importance
of Aperture 120
6.4.4 Shutter Speed 122
6.4.5 Exposure Values 123
6.4.6 International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 124
6.4.7 Focal Length 124
6.4.8 Metering 125
6.4.9 Exposure Compensation 126
6.4.10 White Balance 126
6.4.11 Capturing Forensic Content Properly 128
viii Contents
6.5 Forensic Aspects of Photography 129
6.5.1 Scene Incident Photographic Worksheet 130
6.5.2 Photographic Log 130
6.5.3 Types of Photographs 130
6.5.3.1 Establishing—Overview or Overall—Photographs 130
6.5.3.2 Midrange Photographs 132
6.5.3.3 Close-Up Photographs 133
6.5.4 Illumination 133
6.5.5 Filters 136
6.6 Forensic-Specific Considerations 136
6.6.1 Camera Positions 136
6.6.2 Scales 138
6.7 Photography of Common Scene Scenarios 138
6.7.1 Vehicular Accidents 139
6.7.2 Homicide Scenes 140
6.7.3 Nonhomicide Sexual Assaults 143
6.7.4 Suicides 144
6.7.5 Hit-and-Run Cases 146
6.7.6 Fatal Accidents: Body inside the Vehicle 146
6.7.7 Burglary: Breaking and Entering 146
6.7.8 Fire Scenes: Arson 147
6.8 Special Photographic Situations 147
6.8.1 Night and Low-Light Scenes 148
6.8.1.1 Painting with Light 149
6.8.1.2 Slaves 149
6.8.2 Impression Evidence Photography 149
6.8.3 Close-Up Photography 152
6.8.3.1 Image in the Viewfinder 152
6.8.3.2 The Close-Up Lens 152
6.8.3.3 Illumination 153
6.8.3.4 Depth of Field 154
6.8.3.5 Focus 154
6.8.3.6 Scales 154
References 154
Workshop 1: Photography—Camera Basics 155
W1.1 Introduction 155
W1.2 Required Tools 156
W1.3 Camera Basics 156
W1.3.1 File Formats 156
W1.3.2 Camera Function Dials and Menu Options 156
W1.4 Exercise 1 157
W1.4.1 Aperture Priority 157
W1.4.2 Shutter Speed 159
W1.4.3 Manual Priority 159
W1.5 Dark Environment Photography 160
W1.5.1 ISO 160
W1.5.2 Painting with Light or Using Slaves 161
Contents ix
W1.6 Close-Up Photography 161
W1.6.1 Procedure 162
W1.6.2 Questions 162
7 The Paper Trail: Case files, Worksheets, notes,
and sketches 1 63
7.1 Introduction: General Considerations 163
7.2 Case Files 163
7.2.1 Worksheets 164
7.2.1.1 Forms 164
7.2.1.2 Mistakes 167
7.3 Sketches 167
7.3.1 Indoor Sketch Types 169
7.3.1.1 Plan Sketch 169
7.3.1.2 Cross-Projection or Exploded Sketch 170
7.3.1.3 Elevation Sketch 171
7.3.1.4 Perspective Sketch: 3D Rendering of a Scene 171
7.3.2 Outdoor Sketches 172
7.4 Measuring the Scene 172
7.4.1 Locating Objects 173
7.4.1.1 Triangulation 173
7.4.1.2 Baseline Method 174
7.4.2 Photogrammetry 177
7.4.3 Outdoor Scene Measurements 177
7.5 Securing the Archive 179
References 1 83
Workshop 2: Sketching the Scene 183
W2.1 Introduction 1 83
W2.2 Required Tools 183
W2.2.1 Indoor Tools 1 84
W2.2.2 Outdoor Tools 1 84
W2.3 General Methods for Measuring the Scene 184
W2.3.1 Triangulation 184
W2.3.2 The Baseline Method 184
W2.4 Indoor Scene Measurements 184
W2.5 Outdoor Scene Measurements 1 85
W2.6 Instructor Demonstration 1 85
W2.7 Exercises 1 85
W2.7.1 An Outdoor Scene 1 85
W2.7.2 An Indoor Scene 1 85
W2.8 Questions 1 88
8 videography: The forensic documentary 189
8.1 Introduction 189
8.1.1 The Forensic Value of Crime Scene Video 189
8.1.1.1 Objective of the Video 190
