Crew Resource Management, Second Edition

523 Pages·2010·3.94 MB·English

by  Barbara G. Kanki

Crew Resource
Management
Barbara G. Kanki
NASA Ames Research Center, Human Systems Integration Division,
CA, USA
Robert L. Helmreich
Professor Emeritus, Dept. of Psychology, University of Texas
at Austin, TX, USA
Jose´ Anca
Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
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Contents
Foreword .........................................................................................................vii
John K. Lauber
Preface..............................................................................................................ix
Barbara G. Kanki, Robert L. Helmreich and Jose´ Anca
PART 1 THE NATURE OF CRM
Chapter 1 Why CRM? Empirical and Theoretical Bases of
Human Factors Training.............................................................................3
Robert L. Helmreich and H. Clayton Foushee
Chapter 2 Teamwork and Organizational Factors.........................................59
Frank J. Tullo
Chapter 3 Crews as Groups: Their Formation and their Leadership............79
Robert C. Ginnett
Chapter 4 Communication and Crew Resource Management...................111
Barbara G. Kanki
Chapter 5 Flight Crew Decision-Making......................................................147
Judith M. Orasanu
Chapter 6 CRM (Non-Technical) Skills d Applications for and
Beyond the Flight Deck..........................................................................181
Rhona Flin
PART 2 CRM TRAINING APPLICATIONS
Chapter 7 The Design, Delivery and Evaluation of Crew Resource
Management Training............................................................................205
Marissa L. Suffler, Eduardo Salas and Luiz F. Xavier
Chapter 8 Line Oriented Flight Training (LOFT): The Intersection
of Technical and Human Factor Crew Resource Management
(CRM) Team Skills...................................................................................233
Captain William R. Hamman
iii
iv Contents
Chapter 9 Line Operations Simulation Development Tools.......................265
Michael Curtis and Florian Jentsch
Chapter 10 Crew Resource Management (CRM) and Line
Operations Safety Audit (LOSA)...........................................................285
Bruce A. Tesmer
Chapter 11 Crew Resource Management: Spaceflight Resource
Management..........................................................................................301
David G. Rogers
Chapter 12 The Migration of Crew Resource Management
Training...................................................................................................317
Brenton J. Hayward and Andrew R. Lowe
PART 3 CRM PERSPECTIVES
Chapter 13 A Regulatory Perspective..........................................................345
Kathy H. Abbott
Chapter 14 A Regulatory Perspective II.......................................................361
Douglas R. Farrow
Chapter 15 Integrating CRM into an Airline’s Culture:
The Air Canada Process..........................................................................379
Captain Norman Dowd
Chapter 16 The Accident Investigator’s Perspective...................................399
Robert L. Sumwalt, III and Katherine A. Lemos
Chapter 17 The Airlines’ Perspective: Effectively Applying Crew
Resource Management Principles in Today’s Aviation
Environment...........................................................................................425
Captain Don Gunther
Chapter 18 Conversations on CRM from Outside the USA........................435
Jose´ Anca
Chapter 19 The Military Perspective............................................................445
Paul O’Connor, Robert G. Hahn and Robert Nullmeyer
Contents v
PART 4 CONCLUSIONS
Chapter 20 Airline Pilot Training Today and Tomorrow.............................469
Captain Linda M. Orlady
Chapter 21 The Future of CRM.....................................................................493
Robert Helmreich, Jose´ Anca and Barbara G. Kanki
Index..............................................................................................................501

Foreword
I was privileged towrite the Foreword for the 1993 first edition of Cockpit Resource
Management.Ifeeldoublyprivilegedtodothesameforthissecondedition,nowre-titled
CrewResourceManagement,achangethatreflectsmanydevelopmentsthathavetakenplace
intheinterveningtime.Allofusinvolvedinthoseearlydaysof‘‘CRM’’canrightfullyfeel
a sense of pride and satisfaction in what has evolved from an earlyand comparatively
rudimentarysetofconceptsandpracticestonearlyuniversallyappliedpreceptsthathave
significantly improved the way we conduct training and operations in airplanes, ships,
medical settings, wildfire management and myriad other previously unimagined appli-
cations that involve complex human behavior in organizational and team settings.
In1993,theverb‘‘togoogle’’didn’texist.WhenIwrotethisForeword(mid-February
2009), ‘‘googling’’the term‘‘crewresource management’’returned84,300results, a
number surely tobemuchlargerbythe timethisbookispublished. Interestingly, sub-
stituting‘‘cockpit’’for‘‘crew’’inthesearchtermloweredthenumberofhitsby75%which
illustrateshowsignificantlythefocushaschangedfrom the cockpit to‘‘crews’’indiverse
environmentsthatbearlittlephysicalresemblancetocockpits,butshareacommonreliance
oncomplexhumanperformance ina team contextfor safeandeffective functioning.
In 1993, the accident rate for global scheduled air transport operations was 1.9 hull
loss accidents per million flights; today, that rate is less than 1.0, a major improvement
thatclearlydemonstratesthecollectiveinfluenceofseveralfactorsthataffectriskandthe
management of risk in our aviation system. Among these are continued improvements
in the design, manufacture and maintenance of transport category aircraft and power
plants. Significant improvements in air traffic management, navigation and guidance,
and weather detection, analysis and information dissemination also have contributed to
vii
viii Foreword
theimprovedsafetypicture.Clearly,too,improvementsinhumanperformancebrought
about by the increased understanding and application of the principles of CRM have
played a major role in reducing accidents in aviation. Much of this progressive devel-
opment is attributable to the editors and authors of these two editions, and the workof
others whose contributions are described in this volume.
In1993, Iusedtwomajor air transportaccidentsto illustrate thereductionofriskin
airline operations made possible by the earlyintroduction ofCRMconceptsdthe 1972
LockheedL-1011accidentintheFloridaEverglades,andthe1989McDonnellDouglas
DC-10 accident at Sioux City, Iowa. The first accident claimed the lives of all 163
passengers and 13 crewmembers after the flight crew became distracted while changing
a burned-out indicator light and allowed the aircraft to descend into the swamp. In the
second accident, nearly two thirds of the total of 296 passengers and crew survived in
large part because the crew successfully applied the principles of CRM to manage what
otherwise would have been a non-survivable event due to total loss of flight controls.
AsIwritethisForeword,onlyafewweekshavepassedsincewhatsomehavetermed
‘‘theMiracleontheHudson.’’AllpassengersandcrewsurvivedtheditchingofanAirbus
A320 in the Hudson River due to a double engine failure consequent to multiple bird
strikesshortlyafter takeoff.AlthoughtheNTSBreportonthisaccidentismanymonths
away, it appears that what could have been a major disaster for those aboard, and
potentially many on the ground, was instead a tale of what went right. In no small part
this outcome was due to the exquisite management of all available resources by the
cockpit and cabin crewmembers and by the ground forces that responded to the
ditching. Again, the fortunate outcome of this event represents the confluence of many
factors,butitisveryclear thatnoneofthosewouldhavemademuchof adifferencehad
theflightcrewnotexecutedasuccessfulditching,and,subsequentlyandincloseconcert
with the cabin crew, evacuated all 155 persons on the aircraft. This accident seems to
represent the highest form of human performancedCRM at its very best.
In 1993, I concluded ‘‘(CRM) is an exciting story, and one which offers great
personal gratification. There are few more rewarding efforts than those which result in
the saving of lives.’’ In the intervening years, the exciting story and its then only
imagined benefits have generated nearly universal application of CRM principles in
virtually thousands of settings. This is a direct result of evolutionary developments in
concept and practice honed by a multitude of dedicated researchers and practitioners.
Still, it remains a story of enormous personal gratification and rewarddcountless
lives have undoubtedly been saved by the collective efforts of those whose works are
chronicled here.
John K. Lauber
Vaughn, WA
Preface
In 1993, Cockpit Resource Management (CRM) was celebrated as the convergence of
a concept, an attitude and a practical approach to pilot training. Equally important was
the convergence and enthusiastic support of the research community, aviation regula-
tors, transport operators and pilot organizations. CRM was maturing, implementing
and continuing to develop all at the same time.
It was always said that ifCRM succeeded, it would disappear as stand-alone training
as it became fully integrated into an airline’s training program. As early as 1990 the
FederalAviationAdministration(FAA)providedamechanismforachievingjustthat,in
theformoftheAdvancedQualificationProgram(AQP).ButCRMgrewinmanyother
directions as well. Fifteen years later, CRM concepts have endured not only by dis-
appearing into the fabric of training, but byexpanding the team concept, evolving into
newapplicationsandnowintegrating itselfintoanevenhigherlevelofsafetyandquality
assurance goals.
Even in 1993, it was evident that CRM was being applied beyond the cockpit and
we acknowledge that CRM more appropriately stands for Crew Resource Manage-
ment. Whilewewillcontinueto focuson CRMinthe cockpit inthisedition, wewant
to emphasize that the concepts and applications provide generic guidance and lessons
learned for a wide variety of ‘‘crews’’ in the aviation system and in the complex, high-
risk operations of many non-aviation settings.
In the late 1970s, when our late colleague H. Patrick Ruffell Smith launched his
classic study of flight crew performance in a Boeing 747 simulator, he could not have
dreamed of what would be inspired by that project. The experiment originally inves-
tigated pilotvigilance,workload andresponse to stress.What isagreat testament to that
ix