creativity or control

328 Pages·2011·1.47 MB·English

CREATIVITY OR CONTROL? A STUDY OF SELECTED XHOSA RADIO
PLAYS IN THE APARTHEID YEARS

by

Khaya Michael Gqibitole

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of
Philosophy in the Department of English – University of KwaZulu-Natal, 2011
Declaration

I declare that this thesis is my own work. It has not been submitted before for any
degree at any other university. Where use has been made of the scholarship of other
authors, they have been duly acknowledged in the text.

……………………………………
Khaya Michael Gqibitole
(942409924)

As the candidate’s supervisor I hereby approve the submission of the thesis.

…………………………………...
Professor Cheryl Stobie
(81221)

November 2011
Abstract

Although radio drama is a very popular form of the media, it is largely neglected in
scholarship. As a result of this, it has been pushed into the periphery of research,
thereby diminishing its value in society at large. The present study attempts to unearth
the importance and value of the genre and its role in society, particularly during the
apartheid era in South Africa. In this regard, the splendid work done by, among
others, K. Tomaselli, R. Teer-Tomaselli, R. Fardon and G. Furniss, L. Gunner, D.A.
Spitulnik, D. Sibiya, M. Maphumulo, N.E. Makhosana, N. Satyo and M. Jadezweni is
acknowledged and commendable. In my view, its ‘omission’ in scholarship does not
mean that the genre played a minimal role in educating and enlightening society.

In the study I propose that radio drama was more constrained compared to other
media genres, even though it was the most accessible. However, its accessibility had
both advantages and disadvantages. On the one hand, it informed and entertained
audiences, while on the other it could be and was used for propaganda purposes. It is
generally this paradox that the study will probe. My premise is that radio was
primarily used by the apartheid government to disseminate propaganda. In order to
ensure that the audiences were not exposed to what was happening ‘out there’,
programmes were created to present a falsehood about the country, thereby depriving
audiences of reliable information.

It is not surprising, then, that there was some confrontation between the managers and
playwrights at the Xhosa language radio station. While the managers tried to
influence programmes to propagate government policy, playwrights used the same
communicative space to educate as well as to entertain the audience. The audience
actively extracted information they needed from the plays. In other words, they played
an active role in meaning-making. Throughout the study I will claim that there was a
rapport between playwrights and the audience. Among other things, that relationship
illustrated the role that the audience played in constituting the plays. Themes such as
‘tradition’ and ‘romance’ were used to connect the plays with the audiences’ everyday
lives. These themes were acceptable at the stations even though they could be
manipulated to serve different purposes.

Some of the plays that I will examine in the study are Buzani Kubawo (1981), Nakuba
Intliziyo Ithatha Ibeka: Undoqo Sisibindi (1987), USomagqabi (1986), UHlohlesakhe
(1979), UThuthula (1970) and Apho Sikhala Khona Isakhwatsha (1981). These plays
will be examined to, among other things, establish the nature of the relationship
between the managers and playwrights. The study will contend that there was a
contestation between managers and playwrights. I will also claim that some of the
plays were based on real political and social issues that plagued the period in
question. In this regard plays such as Apho Sikhala Khona Isakhwatsha will be used
to demonstrate that some playwrights dealt with political issues.

I will also explore how women were represented in the plays. In this regard, I will
argue that women were depicted as inferior to men. To illustrate this I will discuss
plays such as USomagqabi, Lunjalo ke Uthando and others. I will also deal with the
critical issue of the ‘voice’. As a blind medium, radio relies on the voice and as such
playwrights had to work hard to make their plays not only relevant but also believable
to the audiences. The connection between the voice on radio and the ancestral voice
will be examined. Lastly, the study will suggest that radio plays are still relevant in
the present dispensation even though they play a different role compared to the
apartheid era.
Acknowledgements

Warm thanks to my previous supervisor, Professor Liz Gunner, for her assistance and
guidance. I particularly thank her for convincing me to do a study on radio drama. In the
initial stages of the study there were those who were doubtful that the study was ‘doable’, but
through her resourcefulness and tenacity the proposal for the study was finally accepted.
There were times when I wanted to give up but she always had a way of lifting me up.
Thanks, Liz.

I would also like to extend a hand of gratitude to my current supervisor, Professor Cheryl
Stobie, whose expertise and eye for detail saw the completion of this study. I specially thank
her for agreeing to be part of the study at a very difficult and crucial stage. Without her
supervision, this study would never have seen the light of day. Ndiyabulela, Cheryl.

Many thanks also go to all those who made this thesis possible. Among them, I thank Given
‘Oom Givy’ Ntlebi for an interesting and insightful interview, the late Augustine ‘Xhegolam’
Nongauza for agreeing to the interview when he was not feeling well, and Mandla Myeko for
his enthusiasm and encouragement. Their time and assistance in the initial stages of the study
are deeply appreciated. My gratitude extends to Lizo Gqomfa, Manager of Umhlobo Wenene
FM, for giving me an unlimited access to the archives of Umhlobo Wenene FM – Port
Elizabeth. Without his understanding, I would never have accessed the plays which form the
backbone of the study. The same goes for Babalwa Ramncwana, curator of the National
Heritage Archives at Fort Hare. Her time, patience and assistance are warmly appreciated.

Special thanks also go to my wife, Lilitha, and Ntsikelelo ‘Tinci’ Mahlulo for helping me
during the interviews. Others who deserve mentioning are Nontsikelelo Gqibitole (the one
who survived Nobiva’s brutality!), Faniswa Cishe, Shwayiba and Zondi ‘Mhegeba’ for
agreeing to be interviewed. Their ‘listening’ experiences gave me insight into how audiences
responded to the plays. My gratitude extends to all the loyal audiences of Radio Xhosa who
wrote letters to the station. Their letters were a great help and are an integral part of the study.

I would also like to thank my wife, Lilitha, and our children, Qhama and Wonga, for putting
up with me all this time.

Last but not least in love, warm thanks to my family for being there all these years. Without
their support, understanding and love I would not have survived the pressures I went through
during the study.

I particularly would like to say many thanks to our late mother, Nokhaya ‘Manci’, who once
said ‘ndixolele ukunxiba ingxowa ndinifundisa.’ Thank you Ntombi ka ‘L’ for being there for
all of us. May her soul rest in peace!

The financial assistance of the National Research Fund (NRF) is hereby acknowledged.

Dedication

This study is dedicated to my late daughter, Anathi ‘Nathi’, who tragically died on 12
December 2006 at the age of twelve. Lala kakuhle Matshezi, we all miss and love you!
Table of contents

Introduction 1

1. Bird’s Eye View of the Study 8

2. The Establishment of Radio in South Africa: A Contested Terrain 35

3. Audience, State Control and Contestation of Tradition 51

4. Interplay between Fact and Fiction 123

5. Cultural Representation of Women and Gender in Radio Plays 157

6. Mystical Voices in Radio Plays 188

Conclusion 231

Selected Bibliography 237

Appendices 267
Introduction

The idea to do research on radio drama was first mooted in 1999 by my MA supervisor,
Professor Liz Gunner, stemming from my experience in writing radio plays for the Xhosa-
language radio station between the late 1980s and the mid 1990s. Central to the idea was the
fact that there was very little information on whether radio d countered or assisted the
apartheid system, as opposed to other art forms such as poetry, literature and stage drama.
What was disturbing was the perception on the part of some people that radio drama
playwrights may have been disaffected by the political turmoil in the country that they
resorted to self-censorship, instead choosing ‘soft’ themes such as romance and traditional
issues for their plays. While it was felt that a study on radio plays was necessary, it was
conceded that there would be obstacles such as tracking down playwrights, accessing the
scripts, doing a study on radio texts in the English Department and finding a corpus. While
these challenges were real and daunting, I was convinced that the study in this area was
possible and necessary.

However, financial problems led to delays in the project. Subsequently, the turning point was
a chance meeting in 2000 with one of the most popular playwrights and radio announcers of
the time, Given Ntlebi, in King William’s Town. After I told him about the project and asked
him whether he would avail himself for an interview, he agreed.

In the following year I started reading theories on audience and audience reception, mostly on
television. The main problem was that there was very little critical material on radio drama at
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that time. While I understood that television and radio audiences differ in the manner in
which they consume media texts, the television audience research provided crucial insights
into my understanding of radio play audiences. The hypothesis which galvanised me was that
playwrights did indeed play a significant role in the demise of apartheid although they would
have to camouflage their messages. Radio plays that were overtly critical of the apartheid
system were rejected, a fate my own play, Umntu Akalahlwa, suffered in the 1980s. It was on
that score that the idea of studying radio play production in a controlling environment at the
South African Broadcasting (SABC) deepened. An interest in the role of radio in the
apartheid years then was a precursor to the research. Thereafter theorists on television
audience, such as Ien Ang, were read, and thereafter Ruth Tomaselli and Liz Gunner, as well
as other theorists on audiences and reception in the media in general. This background
reading laid a foundation for the initial stages of the research.

The years 2001 and 2002 were probably the busiest in the research. The needed breakthrough
happened on 6 November 2001 when I visited the legendary Xhosa-language radio
playwright, Mandla Myeko, at his home in Zwelitsha, outside King William’s Town. As the
study attests, the interview with him and his work form the backbone of the study. On the
following day, 7 November 2001, I visited an equally revered playwright, Augustine
‘Xhegolam’ Nongauza, who, like Myeko, had worked for the then Radio Bantu for many
years and had written numerous radio plays.

On 13 November 2001 I finally managed to have an interview with Given Ntlebi, again
meeting him by chance. The insight I gained convinced me that a study in the area of radio
drama was not only possible but also long overdue. Meeting the three prolific former
employees of Radio Bantu was instructive, informative and an eye-opener on radio drama. I
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