Counter-Terrorism in Saudi Arabia

370 Pages·2016·2.42 MB·English

Counter-Terrorism in Saudi Arabia:
Narratives, Practices and Challenges

Mohammad Thaieb AlMaawi

PhD Thesis
School of Social Policy Sociology and Social Research
Criminology

University of Kent
February, 2016

Supervisory Team:
Dr Simon Cottee
&
Professor Keith Hayward
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© 2016
Mohammad Thaieb AlMaawi
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like to take this opportunity to thank God ‘Allah’ for his blessing,
continuous support and providing me with the strength and patience to accomplish this work,
as well as the endurance and determination to overcome all challenges presented during the
course of this study.
I thank God for providing me with a wonderful family, who have always been beside
me and provided encouragement throughout this research. In particular, I would like to
express my deep gratitude to my parents, sisters and brothers who have provided support and
encouragement throughout my studies. Their unceasing support, prayers and good wishes
will always be treasured.
In particular, I express my deepest thanks to my wife, Haya, and my children: Rahaf,
Hanin, Nuha, Rina, Tala, Latin and Abdullah, who have provided the motivation to enable
me to persevere with this study during difficult and challenging times. They make my life
happy and wonderful, and without their support I would not have been able to complete this
research. I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my kind and extraordinary
supervisor, Dr Simon Cottee, who has been very helpful and supportive. I thank him for his
constructive discussion and comments, guidance, patience, teaching and inspiration, all of
which has made this thesis possible. In addition, many thanks are due to Professor Keith
Hayward for his support and guidance.
I would like to deeply thank, and express my sincere gratitude to, Abdullah al Hamidy
al Otiby for giving me the opportunity to complete my study abroad.
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In addition, I wish to express my warm and sincere thanks to my close friends,
Hussaine Al Qahtani, Saleh Al Shehry and Abdullah Al Shehry for all their support.
I am deeply grateful to all the people who participated in this research at the Prince
Mohammed bin Naif Centre for Counselling, Rehabilitation and Care. They gave up much of
their valuable time during the fieldwork stage to contribute to this research.
Finally, I wish to express my appreciation and greatly acknowledge the Government
of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for their sponsorship and financial support throughout my
research in the UK.

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Abstract
Since 9/11, both in the Middle East and worldwide, the academic, political and religious
focus on extreme radicalisation has intensified. The attacks carried out in Riyadh, the capital
of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, by Al-Qaeda in 2003, motivated a succession of bombings
within and outside of the Kingdom. These events have led to a plethora of general and
specific studies to understand the phenomenon of extremism.
This thesis investigates radicalisation in Saudi Arabia since 2001, focusing on the
impact of Al-Qaeda and its impact on individuals and the state. It specifically focuses on the
role of the Mohammed bin Naif Centre for Counselling, Rehabilitation and Care, in this
context referred to as ‘the Centre’, analysing its function as a tool for the ‘soft power’
strategy that has been initiated by the Saudi Arabian Government, intended to de-radicalise
individuals who are perceived by the state to have been misled.
The study uses a detailed literature review to unpack the historical trends regarding
the origins of Saudi Arabia, the political differences therein, as well as the different religious
interpretations which are attributed as being a root cause of discontent which thereby leads to
radicalisation and violent extremism in the region. In this thesis, I trace the various schools of
thought regarding the treatment of religion and governance in relation to local and
international politics, and how this impacts upon the radicalisation of individuals.
A Critical Terrorism Studies (CTS) approach is used to highlight the need to view
studies on security from a reflexive perspective, both in the researcher and the researched
subject matter, namely the terrorist organisations and the governments against which they are
fighting. The concept of governance is analysed and how this either precipitates or prevents
dissent that results in violence.
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In addition, the political and religious solutions to radicalisation are assessed, with a
specific focus on the de-radicalisation process, as reflected through a qualitative research on
the views and thinking of the practitioners working in the Centre. In this context, I investigate
the motives, roles, responsibilities and strategies used in executing their roles, with the aim of
seeking possible explanations for the causes of radicalisation and the challenges faced in de-
radicalising individuals. Their views are used to form the main basis for the data for this
research.
This study should be of interest to politicians, security experts, academics, religious
leaders, Islamic scholars and interested individuals. It will be a valuable contribution towards
an understanding of the causes, consequences and possible solutions to addressing Islamic
extremism and radicalisation.

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND CONTEXT 1
1.2 HISTORIC AND CULTURAL VARIABLES 6
1.3 INTERNATIONAL EXPOSURE AND SOCIAL MEDIA 9
1.4 OVERT CONFRONTATION AND CHALLENGES TO STATE POLICY 11
1.5 THE PRINCE MOHAMMED BIN NAIF COUNSELLING AND CARE CENTRE 13
1.5.1 AIMS OF THE CENTRE 14
1.5.2 RESEARCHER IMPRESSIONS OF THE CENTRE 15
1.5.3 COUNSELLING AT THE CENTRE 16
1.5.4 A BRIEF DEMOGRAPHIC DESCRIPTION OF THE CENTRE 19
1.5.5 MEDIA AND ACADEMIC REVIEWS OF THE CENTRE 21
1.5.6 CHALLENGES 24
1.6 BACKGROUND TO RESEARCH QUESTIONS 27
1.6.1 RELIGIOUS SOLUTIONS AND CLERICS IN THE DE-RADICALISATION PROCESS 28
1.6.2 LITERATURE ON EXTREMISM IN SAUDI ARABIA 31
1.7 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO RADICALISATION AND VIOLENCE 34
1.8 RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL PERSPECTIVES OF DE-RADICALISATION 36
1.9 THE PROBLEM OF DEFINING ‘TERRORISM’ 38
1.10 PSYCHOLOGICAL ISSUES OF RADICALISATION, DE-RADICALISATION AND RECIDIVISM 40
1.11 RESEARCH FOCUS AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS 43
1.11.1 THE RATIONALE FOR THIS STUDY 43
1.12 SUMMARY OF FOLLOWING CHAPTERS 50
CHAPTER 2: TERRORISM AND COUNTER-TERRORISM IN SAUDI ARABIA 52
2.1 TERRORISM IN SAUDI ARABIA 52
2.1.1 HISTORICAL CONTEXT: THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA, ISLAM AND THE QUESTION OF EXISTENTIAL IDENTITY 52
2.1.2 THE SIBILA BATTLE OF 1929 59
2.1.3 A FATEFUL ALLIANCE: THE EGYPTIAN SALAFIS AND THE SAUDI WAHABIS: POLITICAL AND RELIGION CONFLICTS 61
2.1.4 THE GRAND MOSQUE (AL-HARAM) ATTACK OF 1979 65
2.2 CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIST RADICALISM IN SAUDI ARABIA: AL-JAMA A AL-SALAFIYA AL-MUTASIBA (JSM) AND
JUHAYMAN 67
2.2.1 THE ROOTS OF ORGANISED CONTEMPORARY EXTREMIST RESISTANCE 67
2.2.2 IDEOLOGY OF THE JSM 68
2.2.3 THE INFLUENCE OF JSM ON SAUDI EXTREMISM 69
2.2.4 THE EMERGENCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF ISLAMIC INTERPRETATION 70
2.2.5 THE AFGHAN JIHAD, THE BIRTH OF AL-QAEDA AND THE FOREIGN FIGHTERS PHENOMENON 74
2.2.6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THREAT OF AL-QAEDA 75
2.2.7 THE RIYADH 2003 ATTACKS 79
2.2.8 THE AL-SAHWA (AWAKENING) MOVEMENT 81
2.2.9 AL-QAEDA IN THE ARAB PENINSULA (AQAP) 2003 84
2.3 COUNTER-TERRORISM IN SAUDI ARABIA AND ITS APPROACH TO POWER AND GOVERNANCE 92
2.4 THE SAUDI HARD POWER COUNTER STRATEGY TO DISSENT AND EXTREMISM 94
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2.5 THE SIBILA BATTLE OF 1929 AND THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE IKHWAN REBELLION 95
2.6 THE END OF THE IKHWAN UPRISING 99
2.7 JUHAYMAN 100
2.8 THE SIEGE OF MAKKAH 101
2.9 THE JIHAD IN AFGHANISTAN AND THE ULAYA, KHOBAR ATTACKS 1995-96 103
2.10 THE EMERGENCE OF SAHWA 106
2.11 THE AL ULAYA ATTACK 1995 IN RIYADH 108
2.12 THE SAHWA ACTIVISM AND ARRESTS 108
2.13 SAUDI HARD POWER AND AL-QAEDA: 9/11 AND RIYADH BOMBING 2003 111
2.14 POST 9/11 116
2.15 DEFINING DE-RADICALISATION 122
2.16 CONCLUSION 126
CHAPTER 3: AN ACCOUNT OF THE SOFT POWER STRATEGIES IN SAUDI ARABIA 127
3.1 UNDERSTANDING SOFT POWER: A BRIEF THEORETICAL EXPOSITION 127
3.2 THE EXPERIENCES OF MUSLIM COUNTRIES WITH EXTREMIST RADICALISM AND DE-RADICALISATION 133
3.2.1 DE-RADICALISING THE EGYPTIAN ISLAMIC GROUP INSURGENTS 135
3.2.2 YEMEN AND THE DIALOGUE STRATEGY 139
3.2.3 INDONESIA AND ITS DE-RADICALISATION PROCESS 142
3.3 SAUDI ARABIA AND THE PROCESS OF DE-RADICALISATION 144
3.3.1 SAUDI’S INTERNATIONAL EFFORTS TO COUNTER TERRORISM 145
3.3.2 THE SAUDI COUNTER-TERRORISM POLICY ON PREVENTION, REHABILITATION AND CARE (PRAC) 155
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN 169
4.1 INTRODUCTION 169
4.2 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES 170
4.3 RESEARCH PARADIGMS 172
4.3.1 THE POSITIVIST PARADIGM 174
4.3.2 THE INTERPRETIVIST PARADIGM 175
4.4 RESEARCH APPROACHES 177
4.4.1 QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE APPROACHES 178
4.5 ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 182
4.6 CULTURE, OPENNESS AND ACCESS 187
4.7 THE CASE STUDY 189
4.8 PARTICIPANTS’ SAMPLING METHOD 191
4.9 PARTICIPANTS’ VOICES/VIEWS 192
4.10 PROCEDURE 195
4.11 DATA COLLECTION METHODS 196
4.11.1 OBSERVATION OF THE PRACTITIONERS IN THE PROCESS 196
4.11.2 SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS 198
4.11.3 THE SCHEDULE OF DESIGNING AND FORMULATING THE SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 200
4.11.4 DATA ANALYSIS 201
4.12 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 203
4.12.1 PROTECTION FROM HARM 205
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CHAPTER 5: INTERVIEW ANALYSIS 207
5.1 ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY 208
5.1.1 EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND AND EXPERIENCE 209
5.1.2 OPPORTUNITY TO WORK AT THE CENTRE 210
5.1.3 DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES 211
5.1.4 MOTIVATION TO BE INVOLVED IN THIS WORK 212
5.2 VIEWS ON EXTREMISM AND HOW TO TARGET IT 213
5.2.1 VIEWS OF DE-RADICALISATION 214
5.2.2 STAFF ROLES AND TASKS 216
5.2.3 VIEWS ABOUT UNDERSTANDING SOFT POWER APPROACH 218
5.2.4 BACKGROUND AND MOTIVES OF THE DETAINEES 221
5.2.5 THE PROCESS OF DE-RADICALISATION AND OPERATION OF THE CENTRE WORKS 228
5.2.6 THE BENEFITS OF THE PROGRAMMES 232
5.2.7 LECTURES: PSYCHOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION AND OTHER TOPICS 239
5.2.8 CONTROL OF EMOTIONS AND IMPULSIVENESS 241
5.2.9 AFTERCARE 242
5.2.10 FAMILY VISITS 242
5.2.11 ISLAMIC SOCIOLOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROGRAMME 242
5.2.12 BUILDING PERSONAL SKILLS: HIRING SKILLED INDIVIDUALS 244
5.2.13 THE ROLE OF SPORTS: PERSONALITY 244
5.2.14 THE ROLE OF THE ARTS 245
5.2.15 COMPUTER COURSES 245
5.2.16 THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE COURSE 245
5.2.17 MY EXPERIENCE PROGRAMME: TALKS BY GRADUATES AND FATHERS 246
5.2.18 THE ROLE OF THE FAMILY IN THE AFTER CARE PROGRAMME 246
5.2.19 AFTER CARE, GRADUAL INTEGRATION THROUGH CREATING JOB OPPORTUNITIES, EDUCATION AND MARRIAGE
247
5.2.20 THE AFTER CARE PROGRAMME AND GOVERNMENTAL PROCESSES 248
5.2.21 LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE SOFT POWER STRATEGY 248
5.2.22 THE UNIQUE ASPECTS OF THE CENTRE 248
5.2.23 THE CENTRE AND THE MEDIA 251
5.3 KEY CHALLENGES IN THE JOB 253
5.3.1 FLEXIBLE STRATEGY WITH ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE CHALLENGE 253
5.3.2 GAINING TRUST 254
5.3.3 HAVING DIFFERENT CASES AND CHALLENGES FROM DIFFERENT CONFLICT ZONES 254
5.3.4 THE MEDIA AND THE RECIDIVISM OF THE BENEFICIARIES 254
5.3.5 THE REJECTION OF THE PROGRAMME 255
5.3.6 SHORT PROGRAMME PERIODS OF THREE MONTHS 255
5.3.7 THE GROUPING OF THE BENEFICIARIES DURING THE DE-RADICALISATION PROGRAMME 255
5.3.8 PUBLIC OPINION 256
5.3.9 REGIONAL CONFLICT ZONES 256
5.3.10 WESTERN SOLUTIONS: DOUBLE STANDARDS? 257
5.3.11 MONITORING THE SOCIAL MEDIA 257
5.3.12 SUBSEQUENT CARE 258
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5.3.13 IMPORTANT INDIVIDUALS IN THE CENTRE 258
5.3.14 PARTICIPANT VIEWS REGARDING ISLAMIC EXTREMISTS 259
5.3.15 ELIMINATING RADICALISATION 261
5.3.16 LIMITATIONS IN DOING THE WORK 264
5.3.17 CHALLENGES IN THE PREVENTION OF (PRAC) PROGRAMME 266
5.4 PERSONAL ISSUES/SECURITY (THE IMPACT OF THE JOB ON PERSONAL LIFE) 270
5.4.1 THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THE HIGH SUCCESS RATE 271
5.4.2 THE POSITIVE EFFECTS OF THIS DUTY 272
5.4.3 INCREASED EXPERIENCE & KNOWLEDGE 273
5.4.4 CONFIDENCE 274
5.4.5 PERSONAL SKILLS 274
5.4.6 THE BENEFITS OF THE WORKING CONDITIONS 275
5.4.7 LIMITED FAMILY AND SOCIAL TIME 275
5.4.8 DECEPTION 277
5.4.9 SAFETY ISSUES 277
5.4.10 ADDITIONAL POINTS 279
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 284
6.1 INTRODUCTION 284
6.2 THE ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITY OF THE PARTICIPANTS 289
6.3 PARTICIPANT VIEWS ON EXTREMISM 291
6.4 AN EXPLORATION OF THE BACKGROUND MOTIVES OF THE DETAINEES 294
6.5 THE INTERACTION BETWEEN EMOTIONS AND RADICALISATION 296
6.6 HOW SOCIAL CIRCUMSTANCES PLAY A ROLE IN RADICALISATION 298
6.7 THE PROCESS OF DE-RADICALISATION AND HOW THE OPERATIONS OF THE CENTRE WORK 299
6.8 LOCAL AND INTERNATIONAL ACCEPTANCE OF THE SOFT POWER STRATEGY 306
6.9 KEY CHALLENGES OF THE JOB 307
6.10 THE IMPACT OF THE JOB ON A PERSONAL LEVEL AND THE THREAT TO PARTICIPANT SECURITY 312
6.11 FINDINGS AND CONTRIBUTION TO NEW KNOWLEDGE 314
6.12 ADDRESSING DISCONTENT 315
6.13 POSSIBILITIES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 316
6.14 CONCLUSION 316
BIBLIOGRAPHY 319
APPENDICES 340

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