Coral Health and Disease in the Pacific

324 Pages·2009·3.63 MB·English

Disclaimer
The contents of this document do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) or the United States Coral
Reef Task Force (USCRTF), nor is it intended to be an opinion beyond the scientific or
other results of its authors. The mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for their use by NOAA or USCRTF.

About This Document
Editor’s Acknowledgements – This document was prepared and printed with support
from NOAA through the Coral Reef Conservation Program. Layout and design were
provided by Sylvia B. Galloway, Cheryl M. Woodley, NOAA NOS NCCOS CCEHBR,
and Andy Bruckner, NOAA NMFS HC. Andy Bruckner, Sylvia Galloway, Jennifer
Kozlowski, Jo-Ann Leong, Stephanie Venn-Watson, Cheryl Woodley and Thierry Work
provided technical edits.
Cover Photographs - The front cover photograph was contributed by Thierry Work and
the back cover composite photographs were contributed by Thierry Work with artwork
by Jim Nicholson.

Citation – Please cite this report as follows:

Galloway, S.B., Bruckner, A.W. and Woodley, C.M. (eds.), 2009. Coral Health and
Disease in the Pacific: Vision for Action. NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS
97 and CRCP 7. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD
314pp.

Citation for an individual ‘white paper’ (e.g., Issues Unique to the Pacific paper)

Gawal M, 2009. Overview of Issues Unique to the Pacific: Biological & Social
Perspectives. pp. 162-167. In: Galloway, S.B., Bruckner, A.W. and Woodley, C.M.
(eds.), 2009. Coral Health and Disease in the Pacific: Vision for Action. NOAA
Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 97 and CRCP 7 National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, Silver Spring, MD 314pp.
Coral Health and Disease in the Pacific:
Vision for Action

Report Editors:

SB Galloway, CM Woodley
NOAA/NOS/NCCOS
Center for Coastal Environmental Health and Biomolecular Research

AW Bruckner
NOAA/NMFS
Habitat Conservation

NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 97
NOAA Technical Memorandum Coral Reef Conservation Program 7

June 2009

United States Department National Oceanic and National Ocean Service
of Commerce Atmospheric Administration

Gary Locke Jane Lubchenco John (Jack) H. Dunnigan
Secretary Administrator Assistant Administrator

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF FIGURES……………………………………………………………………………….. iii

TABLE OF TABLES………………………………………………………………………………… iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY…………………………………………………………….…………….. 1
Recommendations……………………………………………………………………...………… 4

OPENING REMARKS...…………………………………………………………………………….. 8

PREFACE……………….…………………………………………………………………..………… 11

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………………………. 14
Physiology & Pathology Working Group (PPWG)………………………………….….……... 16
Toxicology & Ecological Epidemiology Working Group (TEEWG)…………….…….……... 16
Pathology of Infectious Disease Working Group (PDWG)…………………………….……... 16
Preventing & Responding to Coral Disease in the Pacific Region:
Management Perspectives Working Group (MWG)………………………………..……... 16

A. PHYSIOLOGY & PATHOLOGY……………………………………………………..………. 18
Background…………………………………………………………………………….………… 18
Challenges and Recommendations……………………………………………………….…….. 19
Physiology & Pathology Working Group Members………………………………….……….. 37

B. TOXICOLOGY & ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT…………………………………..……… 38
Background…………………………………………………………………………….………… 38
Challenges and Recommendations……………………………………………………….…….. 39
Toxicology & Ecological Assessment Working Group Members…………….……….……… 55

C. PATHOLOGY OF DISEASE……………………………………………………………….….. 56
Background………………………………………………………………………………….…… 56
Challenges and Recommendations………………………………………………………….….. 57
General Recommendation…………………………………………………………….…….. 58
Pathology of Disease Working Group Members………………………………………….…… 63

D. MANAGEMENT PERSPECTIVES……………………………………………………..……... 64
Background………………………………………………………………………………….…… 64
State of coral Disease Understanding and Management in the 65
Pacific………………..…….
Challenges and Recommendations……………………………………………………….…….. 67
General Recommendation…………………………………………………………….…….. 69
Management Perspectives Working Group Members………………………………….…….. 81

E. WHITE PAPERS………………………………………………………………………….…….. 82
I. INTRODUCTION - SETTING THE STAGE………………………………………..…… 83
Coral Disease And Health Consortium By Cheryl Woodley………………………….……. 83
Studying Coral Diseases: Understanding the Norm By E. Kramarsky-Winter………..…... 89

II. GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE OF CORAL DISEASE…………………………………..….. 90
The GlobalPerspective of Incidence and Prevalence of Coral Diseases
By Andrew Bruckner………………………………………………………………….…….. 90
World Bank Project: Coral Disease Working Group By Bette Willis……………….….….. 122

III. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE – LESSONS LEARNED……………………………..… 126
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Progress in Understanding Coral Diseases in the Caribbean by Andrew Bruckner…..…... 126

IV. STATE OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE PACIFIC…………………………………….....….. 162
Overview of Issues Unique to the Pacific: Biological & Social Perspectivies
By Michael J. Gawel………………………………………………………….……..….. 162
Baseline Levels of Coral Disease in the NorthwesternHawaiian Islands
By Greta Aeby……………………………………………………………….………….. 168
Report 1: Baseline Levels of Coral Disease in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands
by Greta Aeby……………………………………………………..…………………..... 168
Report 2: French Frigate Shoals Reef Health Surveys by Thierry Work et al…..… 169
Current Knowledge of Diseases in US Territories/Freely Assoc. States
By Thierry Work………………………………………………………………..……..… 189
Report 1: Coral and Crustose Coralline Algae Disease on the Reefs of American
Samoa by Greta Aeby et al………………………………………………………..…… 190
Report 2: Johnston Atoll Reef Health Survey by Thierry Work et al……………… 214
Coral Disease on the Great Barrier Reef and in the Western Pacific
By Bette Willis et al………………………………………………………………...…… 234

V. PATHOLOGY AND EPIDEMIOLOGY…………………………………………..….….. 242
Disease and the Diagnostic Process By Gary Wobeser…………………….………..….….. 242
Evolutionary Ecology and Disease Emergence: The Big Picture By Bruce Wilcox..….… 244
Emerging Infectious Diseases By Stephanie Venn-Watson…………………………..…… 245
Wildlife Disease Investigations 101 By David A. Jessup…………………………..………. 248

VI. COMMUNICATION TO MAKE A DIFFERENCE…………………………………..… 256
Scientists, the Public and the Politicians: How Do We Connect for Reef’s Sake?
By Jeffery Allen……………………………………………………………………..….. 256

VII. TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE FUTURE OF CORAL HEALTH…………………..…… 261
Potential Technological Developments for Coral Disease Monitoring
By Melissa Bos……………………………………………………………….…….….. 261
Leveraging Post Genomic Tools and Systems Biology Approaches to Accelerate the
Understanding of Coral Disease and Effectively Monitor the Health of Tropical Reef
Ecosystems By Eric J. Mathur……………………………………………………….…..…. 264

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………………………………………………..…………… 266

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………….………..…………... 269

APPENDIX I. MEETING AGENDA………………………………………………………..……... 284

APPENDIX II. PREVIOUSLY RECOMMENDED CNIDARIAN ‘MODEL SPECIES’ AND
THEIR JUSTIFICATION FROM PEER-REVIEWED LITERATURE…………………..…….. 287

APPENDIX III. CORAL MODEL SPECIES SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION…...….…. 290

APPENDIX IV. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES……………………………...……………...….… 291

APPENDIX V. LIST OF PARTICIPANTS…………………………………………………...….… 309

APPENDIX VI. OPINION PAPER – TRANSMISSION EXPERIMENTS………………....…… 312

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TABLE OF FIGURES

Figure I.1a Global Distribution of Coral Diseases Reported in 1984 .........................15
Figure I.1b Global Distribution of Coral Diseases Reported in 2004 ........................16
Figure A.1 Pocillopora damicornis .................................................................................24
Figure A.2 Stylophora pistillata ......................................................................................25
Figure A.3 Porites rus .....................................................................................................25
Figure A.4 Galaxea fascicularis .....................................................................................26
Figure A.5 Fungia scutaria .............................................................................................27
Figure A.6 Acropora formosa .........................................................................................28
Figure A.7 Acropora millepora .......................................................................................29
Figure B.1 Methodology for Ecosystem Epidemiology ...............................................41
Figure B.2 Integrated Framework for Environmental Assessment ...........................55
Figure C.1 Disease Outbreak Response ........................................................................59
Figure C.2 Scheme for Determining the Nature of a Communicable Disease ..........61

TABLE OF TABLES

Table B.1 Coral Health/Disease Indicators ..................................................................43
Table B.2 Indicators of Coral Health & Disease: Field Observations .......................46
Table B.3 Indicators of Coral Health & Disease: Laboratory Data...........................47
Table B.4 Identification of Risk Factors .......................................................................49
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

“We are studying arguably the most complicated ecosystem on the face of the Earth, and
it is under serious threat…..We have an incredibly important message, if this ecosystem
dies, if this ecosystem is otherwise perturbed to an extent that it cannot recover, not only
does it spell potential disaster for this spaceship we call Earth, but there is no less than
80 emerging economies, nations that are entirely or nearly entirely dependent on coral
reef ecosystems whether it be for the economy or for the subsistence.” (Gary Ostrander,
Vice Chancellor for Research at the University of Hawaii, opening remarks)

Shallow coral reefs in the IndoPacific contain the highest diversity of marine organisms
in the world, with approximately 1500 described species of fish, over 500 species of
scleractinian corals, and an estimated 1-10 million organisms yet to be characterized
(Reaka-Kudla et al. 1994). These centers of marine biodiversity are facing significant,
multiple threats to reef community and habitat structure and function, resulting in local to
wide-scale regional damage. Wilkinson (2004) characterized the major pressures as
including (1) global climate change, (2) diseases, plagues and invasive species, (3) direct
human pressures, (4) poor governance and lack of political will, and (5) international
action or inaction.

Signs that the natural plasticity of reef ecosystems has been exceeded in many areas from
the effects of environmental (e.g., global climate change) and anthropogenic (e.g., land
use, pollution) stressors is evidenced by the loss of 20% of the world’s coral reefs
(Wilkinson 2004). Predictions are that another 24% (Wilkinson 2006) are under
imminent risk of collapse and an additional 26% are under a longer term threat from
reduced fitness, disease outbreaks, and increased mortality. These predictions indicate
that the current list of approximately 30-40 fatal diseases impacting corals will expand as
will the frequency and extent of “coral bleaching” (Waddell 2005; Wilkinson 2004).
Disease and corallivore outbreaks, in combination with multiple, concomitant human
disturbances are compromising corals and coral reef communities to the point where their
ability to rebound from natural disturbances is being lost.

Pacific reefs, in general, have been considered in good condition and most resource
managers have no real concern about coral disease (regardless of whether the cause is an
infectious agent or anthropogenic pollution); this ‘good’ condition status may only be a
reflection of inadequate information for many areas. In fact, the U.S. state of coral reef
ecosystems 2005 report (Waddell 2005) refutes this by showing an increase in disease
reports throughout U.S. states, territories and freely associated states and documents a
growing perception that coral disease may be a threat to Pacific reefs. Increased findings
of coral disease from the World Bank Coral Disease Working Group (WBCDWG) and
NOAA/USGS disease monitoring programs provide ample evidence that disease is
present in Pacific reefs and may, in fact, be increasing. For example, in 2004, the
WBCDWG recorded 12 syndromes at six survey sites; including four syndromes that had
not been previously recorded (Waddell 2005). Some experts warn that Pacific coral reefs
are on a trajectory of degradation similar to that experienced in the Caribbean Basin
where coral reefs are decimated.
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Though the proliferation of coral reef diseases is a sign of a sick ocean environment, this
realization can also be used as an instrument of change. There is growing evidence that
the increased severity and prevalence of these diseases is directly linked to human
activities, such as pollution washing off the land, heat stress to corals, and through
overfishing of organisms that can control macroalgae and pest species like corallivores.
By developing an understanding of disease dynamics, causal links can be determined and
factors driving these system failures can be identified. Developing such an understanding
can move us toward the goal of health management and preventative care for coral reefs.

Recognizing the need for a strategic plan of action to combat and avert a possible health
crisis for Pacific Reefs, the Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC) convened a
workshop to help organize and coordinate a U.S. scientific effort focused specifically on
coral health issues in the Pacific. The goal was to develop an action plan that would
enable regional scientific efforts to detect, identify, characterize, and manage coral
diseases in the Pacific. This report documents the proceedings of this workshop: Coral
Health and Disease in the Pacific: Vision for Action. The goals of the workshop were
to:
(cid:2) Synthesize the state of knowledge of Pacific coral diseases;
(cid:2) Discuss the concepts and principles of disease, their use in investigating causation
and how this can be applied to corals;
(cid:2) Characterize the difficulties in identifying, defining and managing disease in coral;
and
(cid:2) Develop a Strategic Research Plan that
(cid:2) identifies knowledge gaps that impede understanding coral disease mechanisms
(i.e., pathology), and limit elucidation of causes, significance or control of coral
disease (i.e., epidemiology);
(cid:2) recommends directed research and education to fill these knowledge gaps;
(cid:2) standardizes methods for investigating coral disease outbreaks considering both
biotic and abiotic etiologies;
(cid:2) addresses issues relative to the management of coral reef resources; and
(cid:2) fosters collaboration among CDHC partners, stakeholders, key marine resource
management agencies, and regional networks in the Pacific.

The workshop incorporated diverse viewpoints from experts representing biomedicine,
coral disease, toxicology, and resource management. The opening day focused on
presentations from 14 position papers (Appendix VI), to provide context and concepts for
the break-out group discussions. These presentations covered key topics that included:

(cid:2) What do we currently know about coral diseases in the Pacific?
(cid:2) What lessons have we learned from Caribbean disease outbreaks?
(cid:2) Diagnostic methods, systems biology and leveraging post-genomic technologies
(cid:2) Emerging diseases, disease outbreak investigations and ecological epidemiology
(cid:2) How to integrate science with social, economic and political values?

The participants were then assigned to one of four groups: (1) Coral Cellular Physiology
& Pathology; (2) Coral Toxicology & Ecological Epidemiology; (3) Pathology of
2