Converging and diverging principles and practices of organic agriculture regulations and ...

18 Pages·2017·1.16 MB·English

by  Paola Migliorini

Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13593-017-0472-4
REVIEWARTICLE
Converging and diverging principles and practices of organic
agriculture regulations and agroecology. A review
PaolaMigliorini1 &AlexanderWezel2
Accepted:30October2017/Publishedonline:16November2017
#TheAuthor(s)2017.Thisarticleisanopenaccesspublication
Abstract Thereisongoingdebateamongstakeholdersabout the origin and quantity of products potentially used for soil
the future development of agricultural and food systems to fertilisationandpest,disease,andweedmanagementaredif-
meet the global challenges of food supply, biological and ferent. Additionally, some practices are only mentioned for
cultural diversity, climate change, and socialjustice. Among oneofthethreesources.(3)Inanimalproduction,onlyafew
other options, agroecology and organic agriculture are proposed practices are similar for EU organic, IFOAM, and
discussed. Both have similar goals and use a systems ap- agroecology. These include integration of cropping and ani-
proach;however,theyarerecognisedandreceiveddifferently mal systems and breed choice. In contrast, practices for ani-
bystakeholders.Herewereviewandcompareprinciplesand mal management, prevention methods in animal health, ani-
practices defined and described in EU organic agriculture malhousing,animalwelfare,animalnutrition,andveterinary
regulations, International Federation of Organic Agricultural managementaredefinedordescribeddifferently.(4)Related
Movement(IFOAM)norms,andagroecologyscientificliter- to food systems, organic agriculture focusses on technical
ature.Themainfindingareasfollows:(1)Regardingprinci- aspects,suchasfoodprocessing,while in agroecologythere
ples, EU organic regulations mainly focus on appropriate is a prominent debate between a transformative and
design and management of biological processes based on conformativeagenda.Bothagroecologyandorganicagricul-
ecological systems, restriction of external inputs, and strict tureofferpromisingcontributionsforthefuturedevelopment
limitation of chemical inputs. IFOAM principles are very of sustainable agricultural production and food systems, es-
broadandmorecomplete,andincludeaholisticandsystemic pecially if their principles and practices converge to a trans-
vision of sustainability. Agroecology has a defined set of formativeapproachandthatimpedestheconventionalisation
principles for the ecological management of agri-food sys- ofagro-foodsystems.
tems, which also includes some socio-economic principles.
(2) Many proposed cropping practices are similar for EU
organic, IFOAM, and agroecology, e.g. soil tillage, soil fer- Keywords Agroecologicalpractices .Animalproduction
tilityandfertilisation,cropandcultivarchoice,croprotation, practices .Foodsystem .Sustainablecroppingpractices .
as well as pest, disease and weed management. In contrast, Organicfarming
* PaolaMigliorini
Content
[email protected]
1.Introduction
2.Materialsandmethods
AlexanderWezel
[email protected] 3.Regulations,norms,anddefinitions
3.1.Europeanorganicregulation
1 UniversityofGastronomicSciences,PiazzaVittorioEmanuele,9 3.2.IFOAM
Pollenzo,12060Bra,CN,Italy 3.3.Agroecology
2 DepartmentofAgroecologyandEnvironment,ISARA,Lyon,France 4.Principlesinorganicagricultureandagroecology
63 Page2of18 Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63
5.Practicesinorganicagricultureandagroecology Onone side, there isthe approachthatincreasinglyrelies
5.1.Cropproduction on technology, such as precision farming, automatisation/
5.2.Animalproduction mechanisation, and the use of genetically modified (GM)
6.Discussion crops. On the other side are the more ecologically based or
6.1Conformityanddifferencesofprinciplesandpractices traditionalfarmingsystems.Sincethefirstyearofcommercial
incropandanimalproductionoforganicfarmingand plantingofbiotechcropsin1996,morethan60countriesfrom
agroecology all over the world have either planted or imported biotech
6.2.Practicesandotherissuesrelatedtothefoodsystem crops(Clive2016).In2015,18millionfarmersplantedbio-
6.2.1.Foodprocessing techcropsin28countrieson179millionhectares.Precision
6.2.2.Certificationandlabelling farminghasalsostronglyexpandedinthelastdecadebyusing
6.2.3.Socialissues GPSandbig-datatechnology.However,themoreecologically
6.3.Beyondregulationsinorganicagriculture basedsystemshavealsoexpandedinthelastdecades:organic
6.4.Towardsagroecologyregulationsandpolicies? agriculturehasbeengainingpopularityallovertheworldand
7.Conclusions traditionalfamilyfarming,mainlyinthetropicsandsubtrop-
8.References ics,isstillthebackboneofworldfoodproduction.Moreover,
withinclassicalconventionalagriculture,ecologicalelements
andthebetteruseofecologicalprocessesareproposedmore
1Introduction andmoreoftenundertheparadigmofsustainableorecolog-
icalintensification(Wezeletal.2015).
Thereisongoingdebateamongscientists,policymakers,and The UN Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food (De
otherstakeholdersaboutthefuturescenarioanddevelopment Schutter2011)assertsthatagroecologycanplayanimportant
of local, national, and global food systems. The main chal- role in finding solutions for the above challenges. Also, an-
lengesaretoprovideenoughfoodforthegrowingworldpop- otherinternationalauthority(IAASTD2009)statesthatagro-
ulation, reduce food waste, increase healthy diets and food ecological methods are already available and used, and that
consumption, conserve natural resources, mitigate and adapt smallholderfarmersintheworld,whichmakeup80%ofthe
toclimatechange,and eliminate socialinjusticeandcultural totalfarmnumbersandproduceover50%oftheworld’sfood
erosion, i.e. the loss of traditional knowledge (Kodirekkala on 20% of agricultural land, could double food production
2017). Although we urgently need to change most farming within10yearsinfood-insecureareasoftheplanet.
systems, different approaches are proposed by the different Currently,agroecologicalfarmingisnotmarket-driven:no
stakeholdergroups(Fig.1). certificationsystemsnorlabelsexistsofarfortheproduce,it
Fig.1 Connectinglivestock
production,croppingandforestry
withanagroecologicalapproach,
westernFrance(PhotoA.Wezel)
Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63 Page3of18 63
is not yet uniquely defined, and clear entry thresholds are business-oriented industries for supermarkets and the export
absent,e.g.originandamountofinputs(organicorchemical). withmainlyinputsubstitution-basedmethods.
Incontrast,organicfarminghasclearandrigorousregula- When speaking about ecologically based agriculture,
tions and restrictions (e.g. no synthetic pesticides and agroecology is increasingly mentioned and recognised,
fertilisers,processingaidsandadditives,nogeneticallymod- and there are currently big discussions on similarities
ifiedorganismsorproducts),andfarmslosecertificationand and on diverging principles and practices. Agroecology
access to markets when they violate the regulations (Niggli was firstly mentioned in the 1930s, but before the 1980s
2015).Today, the demandfor organic productsisconstantly it did not have a specific definition (Wezel and Soldat
increasingandisnolongeranichesegment,althoughitstill 2009). While research began to study several traditional
represents a low percentage share of the global market. agroecosystems, in particular in the tropics and subtrop-
Organic farming is a response to the global need for more ics, agroecology started to grow and include a broad va-
sustainable farming practices, and is one of the so-called al- riety of topics, though up until the 2000s it still did not
ternative forms of agriculture, e.g. natural agriculture include the study of food systems (Wezel et al. 2009;
(Fukuoka and Fukuoka 1978), permaculture (Ferguson and Wezel and Soldat 2009). But finally, since 2000s on-
Lovell 2014; Mollison 1988), and biodynamic agriculture wards, the food systems dimension has been included
(Steineretal.2005).Theorganicagriculturelabelistheonly (FAO 2016; Francis et al. 2003; Gliessman 2014; Wezel
one, together with the Demeter label, that identifies biody- and David 2012). Agroecology is also more and more
namicproducts,thatimpliesasystemofcontrolandcertifica- recognised as a social or political movement, represented
tion,andthatitisrecognisedworldwide. by organisations and individuals that expose existing con-
Thehistoryoforganicagriculturereachesbacktotheearly flicts in society by proposing political and social change.
twentiethcentury.Itwasoneofthefirstsocialmovementsin For several authors,agroecology cannotberestrictedtoa
agriculture, food, and nutrition and has strong roots in the number of practices that can be standardised. Rather, agro-
paradigm shift in agriculture in Europe and USA (Beus and ecologyisafullysystemicapproachtosustainability,address-
Dunlap1991).Inthepioneerphaseoforganicagriculture,the ingatransformativeprocessoftheentirefoodsystem,includ-
connection between farmer and consumer was very close. ing its perspectivesonequity, justice,and access. The trans-
There were few regulations and little to no codification of formativeprocessimpliestheredesignofthefoodsystemand
practices except for the concepts and guidance provided by the integration ofbothhorizontal and verticaldiversification
themovement’sleaders,suchasRudolfSteinerinAustriaand of production systems within sustainable food systems
Germany, Sir Albert Howard and Lady Eve Balfour in UK, (Gliessman2014).
HansandMariaMullerandPeterRushinSwitzerland,Jerome
IrvingRodaleinUSA,andAlfonsoDraghettiandFrancesco
GarofaloinItaly(VazzanaandMigliorini2009).Intheearly
1970s,therewastheestablishmentofInternationalFederation 2Materialsandmethods
ofOrganic Movement(IFOAM) and farmer-basedorganisa-
tions in Europe (Soil Association in UK, Suolo e Salute in In the present paper, we focus on organic agriculture and
Italy, l’Association Française d’Agriculture Biologique in agroecology. We first provide an overview about the main
France).Sincethe1990s,theorganicsectorhasfollowedthe characteristics of regulations, norms, and definitions of
ISO model (International Organization for Standardization) organic farming and agroecology. We then analyse the
forthird-partycertificationandaccreditationtoassertitscred- official regulations on organic agriculture in Europe (EC
ibility in the market. The global market for organic food in 2007; EC 2008) and vision, principles, and norms of the
2014hasreachedmorethan60billioneuros,withtheleading IFOAM (2014) and compare them with those of agro-
countries being the USA (27.1 million ha), Germany (7.9), ecology in scientific literature (Altieri 1995; Altieri and
France(4.8),andChina(3.7).Worldwidethereare2.3million Nicolls 2005; Dumont et al. 2013; Gliessman 1997,
organicproducersusingatotalof43.7millionhectares(Willer 2014; Nicolls and Altieri 2016). A second comparison
and Lernoud 2016). However, organic agriculture has been is carried out between organic practices and proposed
facingsubstantialchallengesandcriticismoverrecentyears. agroecological practices for cropping and grass-based
Despiteitsacknowledgedsuccesses,itremainsasmallsector livestock systems in scientific literature (Peeters and
compared to global agricultural production (only 1%). Wezel 2017; Wezel et al. 2014; Wezel and Peeters
However, as with conventional farming, organic farming is 2014). Finally, we work out differences and similarities
not a monolithic category and huge differences exist among between the principles and practices, and also discuss
organic production systems that still fall within the organic food-related issues and current developments in organic
agricultureregulation:frommultifunctional,small-scalefarms agriculture and agroecology with regard to regulations
rich in all kind of diversity to globally standardised and and policies.
63 Page4of18 Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63
3Regulations,norms,anddefinitions 3.3Agroecology
3.1Europeanorganicregulation Currently,agroecologycanbeinterpretedasamovement,asa
scientificdiscipline,andalsoasasetofpractices(Wezeletal.
In Europe, the term “organic” on labels for food, feed, and 2009).Differentinstitutionsandcountriesprovidenowdefini-
seeds is legally governed by strict regulations and defines tions for agroecology (FAO 2017a). As a science, common
precise farming and processing techniques. The EU Council definitions that are used are: (i) the integrative study of the
Regulation (EC 2007) No 834/2007 on organic production ecology of the entire food systems, encompassing ecological,
and labelling of organic products and the repealing economic,andsocialdimensions(Francisetal.2003),and(ii)
Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 define Organic Agriculture the application of ecological concepts and principles to the
(art1)asfollowing:“Organicproductionisanoverallsystem design and management of sustainable food systems
offarmmanagementandfoodproductionthatcombinesbest (Gliessman1997).Asasetofagriculturalpractices,agroecolo-
environmentalpractices,ahighlevelofbiodiversity,thepres- gy seeks to improve agricultural systems by imitating natural
ervationofnaturalresources,theapplicationofhighanimal processes,creatingbeneficialbiologicalinteractionsandsyner-
welfare standards and a production method in line with the giesamongthecomponentsoftheagroecosystems(Gliessman
preferenceofcertainconsumersforproductsproducedusing 1990),andvalorisingecologicalprocessesandecosystemser-
natural substances and processes. The organic production vicesforthedevelopmentandimplementationofagroecologi-
method thus plays a dual societal role, where it on the one calpractices(Wezeletal.2014).Moreover,agroecologyisalso
handprovidesforaspecificmarketrespondingtoaconsumer seen as a transdisciplinary, participatory, and action-oriented
demandfororganicproducts,andontheotherhanddelivers approach (Méndez et al. 2013). As a movement, agroecology
publicgoodscontributingtotheprotectionoftheenvironment isseenastheanswertohowtotransformandrepairthematerial
andanimalwelfare,aswellastoruraldevelopment.”Specific realityinafoodsystemandruralworldthathasbeendevastated
codesofproductionaredescribedintheECRegulation889/ byindustrialfoodproductionanditsso-calledGreenandBlue
2008 of the European Commission (EC 2008), which lay Revolutions.Thediverseformsofsmallholderfoodproduction
down detailed rules for the implementation of Council basedonagroecologygeneratelocalknowledge,promotesocial
Regulation N 834/2007 on organic production and labelling justice,nurtureidentityandculture,andstrengthentheeconom-
oforganicproductswithregardtoorganicproduction,label- icviabilityofruralareas.Agroecologyisseenasarealsolution
ling,andcontrol. tomoderncrises(climate,malnutrition,etc.),notconformingto
theindustrialmodelbutrathertransformingitbybuildinglocal
3.2IFOAM foodsystemsthatcreatenewrural-urban links,basedontruly
agroecologicalfoodproduction(ViaCampesina2015).
Another definition of organic agriculture is declared by TheAssociationofAgroecologyEuropeoutlinesagroecolo-
IFOAM(2005):“OrganicAgricultureisaproductionsystem gy as the following (www.agroecology-europe.org):
that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It “Agroecologyisconsideredjointlyasascience,apracticeand
relies on ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles asocialmovement.Itencompassesthewholefoodsystemfrom
adaptedtolocalconditions,ratherthantheuseofinputswith thesoiltotheorganisationofhumansocieties.Itisvalue-laden
adverseeffects.OrganicAgriculturecombinestradition,inno- and based on core principles. As a science, it gives priority to
vationandsciencetobenefitthesharedenvironmentandpro- action research, holistic and participatory approaches, and
mote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all transdisciplinarity including different knowledge systems. As a
involved.” practice, it is based on sustainable use of local renewable re-
TheIFOAMnorms(IFOAM2014)arecomposedofthree sources, local farmers’ knowledge and priorities, wise use of
documents: (i) Common Objectives and Requirements of biodiversity to provide ecosystem services and resilience, and
Organic Standards (COROS)—IFOAM Standards solutionsthatprovidemultiplebenefits(environmental,econom-
Requirements, (ii) IFOAM Standard for Organic Production ic,social)fromlocaltoglobal.Asamovement,itdefendssmall-
andProcessing,and(iii)IFOAMAccreditationRequirements holders and family farming, farmers and rural communities,
forBodiesCertifyingOrganicProductionandProcessing.The foodsovereignty,localandshortmarketingchains,diversityof
norms are based on a number of principles as given in the indigenousseedsandbreeds,healthyandqualityfood.”
introduction of the standards (IFOAM 2007). The standard
sectionsareformulatedfororganicecosystems,cropproduc-
tionandanimalhusbandry,aquaculture,processingandhan- 4Principlesinorganicagricultureandagroecology
dling,labelling,andsocialjustice,andtheyincludethedefi-
nitions,thespecificprinciples,therecommendations,andthe Thefirstaspectstobeconfrontedaretheprinciplesoforganic
standards,consideredasminimumrequirements. farming (EU and IFOAM) and agroecology (Table 1).
Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63 Page5of18 63
Table1 Principlesoforganicfarmingandagroecology
Organicagriculture Organicagriculture Agroecology
EUregulation IFOAMNorms (NicollsandAltieri2016,Gliessman1997,2014;
(EC2007,Article4—Overallprinciples) (IFOAM2014) adaptedandfurtherdevelopedfromReijntjesetal.
1992,Altieri1995 andAltieriandNicolls2005;
Stassartetal.2012,Dumontetal.2013,Dumont
etal.2016)
Organicproductionshallbebasedonthe Generalprinciplesoforganicagriculture: Generalprinciplesofagroecology:
followingprinciples: theseprinciplesaretherootsfromwhich (cid:129)Enhancetherecyclingofbiomass,withaviewto
(a)theappropriatedesignandmanagementof OrganicAgriculturegrowsanddevelops. optimisingorganicmatterdecompositionand
biologicalprocessesbasedonecological TheyexpressthecontributionthatOrganic nutrientcyclingovertime
systemsusingnaturalresourceswhichare Agriculturecanmaketotheworld. (cid:129)Strengthenthe“immunesystem”ofagricultural
internaltothesystem(…..); Composedasinter-connectedethical systemsthroughenhancementoffunctional
(b)therestrictionoftheuseofexternalinputs. principlestoinspiretheorganic biodiversity—naturalenemies,antagonists,etc.,
(….); movement—initsfulldiversity,theyguide bycreatingappropriatehabitats
(c)thestrictlimitationoftheuseofchemically ourdevelopmentofpositions,programs (cid:129)Providethemostfavourablesoilconditionsfor
synthesisedinputstoexceptionalcases andstandards. plantgrowth,particularlybymanagingorganic
(….); (cid:129)Health:OrganicAgricultureshouldsustain matterandbyenhancingsoilbiologicalactivity
(d)theadaptation,wherenecessary,and andenhancethehealthofsoil,plant, (cid:129)Minimiselossesofenergy,water,nutrientsand
withintheframeworkofthisRegulation,of animal,humanandplanetasoneand geneticresourcesbyenhancingconservationand
therulesoforganicproductiontaking indivisible. regenerationofsoilandwaterresourcesand
accountofsanitarystatus,regional (cid:129)Ecology:OrganicAgricultureshouldbe agrobiodiversity
differencesinclimateandlocalconditions, basedonlivingecologicalsystemsand (cid:129)Diversifyspeciesandgeneticresourcesinthe
stagesofdevelopmentandspecific cycles,workwiththem,emulatethemand agroecosystemovertimeandspaceatthefield
husbandrypractices. helpsustainthem. andlandscapelevel
(cid:129)Fairness:OrganicAgricultureshouldbuild (cid:129)Enhancebeneficialbiologicalinteractionsand
onrelationshipsthatensurefairnesswith synergiesamongthecomponentsof
regardtothecommonenvironmentandlife agrobiodiversity,therebypromotingkey
opportunities. ecologicalprocessesandservices
(cid:129)Care:OrganicAgricultureshouldbe Principlesforanimalproductionsystems:
managedinaprecautionaryand (cid:129)adoptingmanagementpracticesaimingtoimprove
responsiblemannertoprotectthehealth animalhealth
andwell-beingofcurrentandfuture (cid:129)decreasingtheinputsneededforproduction,
generationsandtheenvironment. (cid:129)decreasingpollutionbyoptimisingthemetabolic
functioningoffarmingsystems
(cid:129)enhancingdiversitywithinanimalproduction
systemstostrengthentheirresilience
(cid:129)preservingbiologicaldiversityinagroecosystems
byadaptingmanagementpractices
Socio-economicprinciplesforagroecology:
(cid:129)createcollectiveknowledgeandcopingability
(cid:129)fosterfarmers’independencefromthemarket
(cid:129)recognisethevalueofadiversityofknowledge
andknow-how
Principles should guide the movement and also help in the healthy soil, plants, animals, humans for a healthy planet;
application of the practices. The EU regulations on organic Ecology is emulating and sustaining natural systems;
farming (EC 2007) have a specific article on Overall Fairnessreferstotheequity,respectandjusticeforallliving
Principles (Article 4) that include four sub-paragraphs. things;andCareforthegenerationstocome.
Those four principles refer mainly to ecological aspects of Regarding agroecology, different principles can be men-
sustainability focusing on ecological systems, restriction of tioned (Table 1). Modern agroecosystems require systemic
externalinputs,limitationofchemicalinputs,andadaptation change, but newly redesigned farming systems will not
tolocalconditions. emergefromsimplyimplementingasetofpractices,butrath-
In a process of several decades, the international organic er from the application of agroecological principles (Nicolls
community,organisedbyIFOAM,agreedonacommonun- and Altieri 2016), referring to the promotion of ecological
derstandingonwhattheprinciplesoforganicagricultureare. processes and services, including soil, water, air, and biodi-
Since 2007 those principles are included in the IFOAM versity aspects. The different principles include (i) recycling
Norms (IFOAM 2014) with the four major principles on of biomass, (ii) enhancement of functional biodiversity, (iii)
health, ecology, fairness, and care(Table1).Healthrefersto provisionoffavourablesoilconditionsforplantgrowth,(iv)
63 Page6of18 Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63
minimisationoflosses,(v) diversification ofspecies and ge- noindication of maximumamounts,type, andsourceare
neticresourcesintheagroecosystem,and(iv)enhancementof provided. More explicitly, split fertilisation and use of
beneficialbiologicalinteractionsandsynergies. biofertiliserarementioned.
For agroecological animal systems, Dumont et al. (2013) 3. Regardingcropandcultivarchoice,bothorganicandagro-
add to theabove-mentionedprinciples two more specific ani- ecologicalpracticescallfortheuseofspeciesandvarieties
mal production principles: (i) adopting management practices thatarelocallyadaptedandresistanttopestanddisease.In
aimingto improve animalhealth, and (ii) enhancingdiversity addition,organicagriculturerequiresorganicseedorigin(in
withinanimalproductionsystemstostrengthentheirresilience. theEUitisastrictobligationwhileinIFOAMitisapref-
To the more production- and ecology-related principles, erence)andprohibitstheuseofGMOseeds.
Stassart et al. (2012) and Dumont et al. (2016) further add 4. The crop rotation practices are quite similar and include
three socio-economicprinciples for agroecology: creation of thecultivationofleguminouscovercropsandgreenma-
collectiveknowledge,independencefromthemarket,anddi- nurecropsfordiversifiedrotations.
versityofknowledgeandknow-how. 5. Intercropping,thecoexistenceoftwoormorecropsonthe
same field at the same time, is not mentioned in the or-
ganic EU regulation. In IFOAM, intercropping is men-
5Practicesinorganicagricultureandagroecology tionedinsomeIFOAMnorms,butnospecificdefinition
is given, while two types of intercropping exist under
5.1Cropproduction agroecology(Fig.2).
6. The management of landscape elements and habitats is
To make a comparison between the description of crop pro- not mentioned explicitly in the organic EU regulation,
duction practices inEUregulations, IFOAMnorms,and ag- but it is indirectly linked to habitat development as the
roecology, we define nine categories, because no common precautionary measures to be taken in order to reduce
categoriesexistforthethreesources(Table2):1.Soiltillage; theriskofcontamination.InIFOAMnormsandinagro-
2.SoilfertilityandFertilisation;3.Cropandcultivarchoice; ecology,itisspecificallydescribedasmaintainingores-
4. Crop rotation; 5. Intercropping; 6. Management of land- tablishinglandscapeelementsorecologicalinfrastructure.
scape elementsand habitats;7.Pest,disease andweedman- 7. Pest,disease,andweedcontrolpracticesarequitesimilarin
agement;8.Waterquantityandquality;and9.Agroforestry. organic and agroecology management systems, including
several prevention practices and indirect methods (species
1. Soilisconsidereda livingorganisminall three sources, andvarietieschoice;croprotation,intercropping,andcom-
thusfarmersshouldtakethisintoaccountinmanagingit, panionplant;cultivationtechnique,provisionoffavourable
e.g. soil tillage. Both the organic and agroecology prac- habitat for natural enemies) as well as direct controlling
ticesstronglyemphasisetheimportancetouseappropri- practices(releaseofpredatorsandparasites,mulching,traps;
atesoiltillageandcultivationpracticestoconserveorto trap crops or push-pull strategies). In contrast, the use of
increasesoilorganicmatter,soilstability,andsoilbiodi- products for crop protection is described differently. In or-
versity, and to protect against soil erosion and compac- ganic EU, only products from the annex list can be used.
tion.Agroecologyspecifiestheuseofnotillagewithdi- IFOAMdistinguishesbetweenon-farmpreparations(plant,
rectseedingandsuperficialtillage. mineral,micro-organism)thatareallowed,andexternalin-
2. Soil fertility and fertilisation practices are quite similar as puts that can be chosen only from the annex list.
described by organic EU and IFOAM: both consider as Agroecology also proposes the use of pesticides derived
fundamentalcroprotationwithleguminouscropsandthe fromplantsorplantextracts.
return of organic materials, preferably composted, to the 8. Regarding management practices for water quantity and
soil.Inaddition,IFOAMspecifiesthattheorganicmaterial quality,EUregulationenouncestheprincipleoftherespon-
shouldcomefromthefarmorfromlocalorigin.Thesame sibleuseofthisresource,imposingthepracticeoflimiting
canbefoundinorganicEU,insidetheanimalsectionthat theamountoflivestockunitsandnitrogeninputsperhect-
refer to exchanging organic material in cooperation with ares. The IFOAM norms indicate that farmers should pre-
otherorganic farmsintheregion. Inbothorganic regula- serve water quality and to monitor water extraction, thus
tions,organicexternalmaterialscanbeadded,butonlyif encouraging the practice of recycling rainwater.
neededandifincludedinthelistintheannex.Onlyorganic Agroecologymentionstheuseofdripirrigation,aswellas
EUspecifiesamaximumamountofnitrogenderivedfrom covercropsandintercropping,toreducenutrientleaching.
livestock manure (170 kg per year per hectare). IFOAM 9. Agroforestryisnot mentioned intheorganic regulations
doesnotallowtheburningofvegetationandinsteadstress- and norms, while it is described in agroecology as
estheimportanceofsoilcover.Agroecologicalfertilisation intercropping withcrops and rows ofwoodyvegetation,
practicescanincludebothorganicandchemicalinputs,but orestablishingfruittreemeadowsorpastures.
Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63 Page7of18 63
alpractices Agroecology(Wezeletal.2014) Notillagewithdirectseeding:plantingofcropsdirectlyinprecedingcovercrop(livingordestroyed)orcropresidues.Useofsuperficialtillagewithoutsoilinversion.Splitfertilisation:fertiliserapplication(chemicalandorganic)withseveraloperationsBiofertiliser:applicationoflivingmicroorganismstoseed,plantsurfaces,orsoilOrganicfertilisation:Applicationofexclusivelyorganicormixedwithinorganicfertilisation. Useofresistantcropstobioticandabioticstresses(andmixingthem)orcropswithselectedtraitsthatenhancerhizosphereactivities. Integrationofdifferentcropsinrotations(includingcovercrops). Intercropping:coexistenceoftwoormorecropsonthesamefieldatthesametime.Relayintercropping:undersowingofrelaycropsinalreadyexistingcrop. Plantingandmanagementofvegetationstripsandhedgesinfieldsandatfieldborders.Managementofhedges,vegetationstripsandotherlandscapeelementsatterritoryscale. Preventionandindirect:cultivarchoice;cropotation,intercroppingandcovercrops;reducedtillage;directseeding.
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gi
o
practicesinorganicagriculturecomparedtoagroecol OrganicagricultureIFOAMNorms(IFOAM2014) Takemeasurestopreventerosionandminimiselossoftopsoilsuchasminimaltillage,contourploughing,maintenanceofsoilplantcover. Returnmicrobial,plantoranimalmaterialtothesoiltoincreaseoratleastmaintainitsfertilityandbiologicalactivitywithgreenmanure,compostormulch(organicallyproducedonthefarm,obtainedfromthesurroundingfarmsornaturalenvironmentorfromotherinputsallowedunderInappendix:Othertechniquescanbecroprotation,useofnitrogenfixationplants.Restrictlandpreparationbyburningvegetation.Nouseofsodium(chilean)nitrate,ofsyntheticfertilisersorfertilisersmadesolublebychemicalmethods,e.g.superphosphates.Selectionofspeciesandvarietiesadaptedtothelocalsoilandclimaticconditionsandtolerancetopestsanddiseases.Givepreferencetoorganicallybredvarieties,whenavailable.Prohibitionofgeneticengineeringanditsproducts. Alternatingthespeciesorfamiliesofannualand/orbiennialcropsgrownonaspecificfieldinaplannedpatternorsequence.Croprotationsshallbediverseandincludesoilimprovingplantssuchasgreenmanure,legumesordeeprootingplants.Nospecificdescription.ThetermintercroppingismentionedinthefollowingsectionsoftheNorms:organiccropproductionmanagement;pestanddiseaseandweedmanagement.Maintainandimprovelandscapeandenhancebiodiversityquality,bymaintainingon-farmwildlife,refugehabitatsorestablishingthemwherenoneexisting(e.g.extensivegrassland,hedgerows,fieldmargins;poolsandditches).Preventionandindirect:speciesandvarietieschoice;oprotation,intercroppingandcompanionplant;crprovisionoffavourablehabitatfornaturalenemies.
n
o
gulationsandIFOAMnormsconcerningcropproducti OrganicagricultureEUregulation(EC2007;EC2008) Usetillageandcultivationpracticesthatmaintainorincreasesoilorganicmatter,enhancesoilstabilityandsoilbiodiversity,andpreventsoilcompactionandsoilerosion.Useofmultiannualcroprotationincludinglegumesandothergreenmanurecrops,andbytheapplicationoflivestockmanureororganicmaterial,bothpreferablycomposted.OnlyfertilisersandsoilconditionersreferredtoinAnnexImaybeusedandonlytotheextentnecessary.Mineralnitrogenfertilisersshallnotbeused.Thetotalamountoflivestockmanuremaynotexceed170kgNperyear/hectare. Choiceofappropriatespeciesandvarietiesresistanttopestsanddisease.Onlyorganicallyproducedseedandpropagatingmaterial.Useofnon-organicmayauthoriseifnotavailablefromorganicproduction.Prohibitionofgeneticengineeringanditsproducts.Multiannualcroprotationincludinglegumesandothergreenmanurecrops. Notmentioned Notmentionedbutindirectlinktohabitatdevelopment(naturalbarrier)asprecautionarymeasurestobetakeninordertoreducetheriskofcontaminationbyunauthorisedproductsorsubstancesbyconventionalneighbourPreventionandindirect:pests,diseasesandweedsshallrelyprimarilyontheprotectionbynaturalenemies,thechoiceofspeciesandvarieties,croprotation,cultivationtechniquesandthermalprocesses.
e
r
U
E
able2Descriptionin ategoryofpractices Soiltillage Soilfertilityandfertilisation Cropandcultivarchoice Croprotation(includingcovercropsandgreenmanure) Intercropping Managementoflandscapeelementsandhabitats Pestdiseaseandweedmanagement
T C 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
63 Page8of18 Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63
Agroecology(Wezeletal.2014) Direct:controlofweeds,pestsanddiseasesbasedonintroductionofnaturalenemies,pheromones,pesticidesderivedfromplantsorplantextracts,integrationofallelopathicplantsincroprotation;trapcropsorpush-pullstrategies.Useofdripirrigation(withoutorincombinationwithcovercropsormulch).Useofcovercropsorintercroppingtoreducenutrientleaching. Alleyintercroppingwithcropsandrowsofwoodyvegetation.Scatteredfruittreesinmeadowsorpastures. 5F(AAm12T...on2naarnibimAmIbhnnIaalnneguouonanatemlttlieti3irhlmmhmgsim)beterwo:aieneaacalrnrot1te-lgnistaro.rlo.aa.pegpfnnfgIOlarpaanieaorncrotntmenoedeifl;aicdayguemnccrn6Ecordhpaatot.rt;UrligipasaaooA3angcpnpna.ntrdineinonicBrciodegcemrfclhsEoeIoae,acFesUnlclerdowOtdoagrntepAcrehyaeuhpgenMdtoipuiinrincmirlsicgaayttraeitaciceinno;ltaolgigenncn4suauedy;so.nlisasfnsiAatatmhaeeionnonsxmrpdising.mamoessavs7,anwaiee.lsilacanansVhyinymimocmecstauoattlataeuestextlihmrdegniiammerongsvda;r;auaeinrnemi25ydnas-..
agement isbased onaccesstoopenair orgrazing areas,
3. whereasitisnotspecificallymentionedunderagroecolo-
OrganicagricultureIFOAMNorms(IFOAM2014) Direct:releaseofpredatorsandparasites,mulching,traps;on-farmpreparations(plant,mineral,micro-organism).Whenthesemeasuresarenotsufficient,pest,diseaseandweedmanagementsubstancespermittedmaybeusedfromAppendixPreventorremedysoilandwatersalinisation,norexcessivelyexploitwaterresourcesandpreservewaterqualityandpossiblerecyclerainwaterandmonitorwaterextraction. Notmentioned 34.. gvToipTinfhmsnnoieeoryehhmdagrer.nueet-miadhistgisFlnianisiepaeomnonnidreoncndgrliEocayfomiilaocrUmutfasethaalroas,llgtleeirkisraupttbhoeaeahhndlorongntaordeiiiuusuinetfoedmiflseltonfdoetsaoiora.nnrsutayareilcsgtop,snardobenpdaaatoanr,snrnaenorssopepdeditdprdaaedcteaekcceaaobcldctrhirgsmineaheieoeretstgaoossimokisoid,emc,eianeecldneneopnafotaiipdcnoaofdlnnofairdseeneielcgaimddrngacyocqegt.ac,aootneuhlonTtnrggtihweutddoihrearevneiredentiistmqclineeiifohummItsasginhFancirraieeorrOipleaaim,lafbrdvcbAbreheua.toeufieedMnmenhitradiraiinmletsinsvthnotnnhuiaiegdccoormlepfessurthawtmriracnayoetaiooess--f-ll
imumrequirementsareproposed.Inagroecology,thereare
OrganicagricultureEUregulation(EC2007;EC2008) Direct:certainplantprotectionproductscanbeusedasreferredtoAnnexIIofRegulation. Useresponsiblywater.Inordertoavoidenvironmentalpollutionofnaturalresourcessuchassoilandwaterbynutrients,anupperlimitfortheuseofmanureperhectareandforkeepinglivestockperhectareshouldbeset.Thislimitshouldberelatedtothenitrogencontentofthemanure.Notmentioned 56.. nAtfneltebeAfdauiaaelncnaooeoennnrdronchctrneemdiimeleacmm,esoosssdveepdacnsg,taanieanayowalrdlttcngpde,souninwidireqefrdttauaiiathhugences.itlrtelenrluasldofoiBetEs,taathsimwmftirrfooUf,eeoeeauodnteeanwnhledrdnisifr.tsunashdieietIplEfcnlstgieneceoecehigrUuoostnrhc,os,alnnaliaaaronifreansavgtnientfiicipcnhcmeapoiddompeedosnarnelatlorfniorofyaoclgeIedaiiglcFtremadruwatkihdmnoOgcgceaaeoiiaotsrsnAclfliuliotpefoapgcwasaMsrrefrnrubieramiecsin,lebloqnrlittig.msfeuuiersusnaoit.shypfrAithrigfecrymoneesete,ilocngasmifcellpniodloiafonevret,ynrnhxtnogecndetopaddesoothtesstthnrruimfeodctg.eeaciasacssaosmrteespsknaendsameulmiusinls.ctan.irahdsoinIneIira-oFrtnendnpgyeuaOaaasrramclceittwtdAgccbuuhaferoueearrapbMnoaarrlllnee-------ll
50%ofthefeedshalleithercomefromthefarmunititself,
from surrounding natural grazing areas, or be produced in
Table2(continued) Categoryofpractices 8.Waterquantityandqualitymanagementpractices 9.Agroforestry coftOmhoornagraotlatpyytnteeohitrrchueayentiEingoEsUnhUmdoaawaurniemlliddgtyhmuIhFlraoaaaOlttvstihio.eAoenSrMnmspsoaiemrrxcogeiipfagmfionuchusilcaemerturitfbohlaueniarssvmtseoafsrortoeerlfqiesnuhgaeessrtshatrhtbze6aiim0vlnrl%ogeagrtceepioorsoafnnnsiatstm.huliseBrpmtaodogiosrtlehykef.
Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63 Page9of18 63
Fig.2 Intercroppingoforganic
wheatandwhitecloverin
southeasternFrance(PhotoA.
Wezel)
roughage,freshordriedfodder,orsilage.Agroecologygives and that encourage the transformation towards sustainable
priority to feed (e.g. fresh grass, hay, silage) compared to agri-foodsystems.
food(e.g.cereal,pulses). EU organic regulations mainly focus on the restriction of
7. Veterinary management. Both organic EU and IFOAM external inputs and the limitation of chemical inputs. This
give high importance to respecting high animal welfare aspectmayalsohavethesocio-economicimpactofpromoting
standardsandtomeetinganimals’species-specificbehav- independency from the market, although it is more a conse-
iouralneeds.Animal-healthmanagementshouldbebased quence than a clear goal. IFOAM principles are very broad
ondiseaseprevention,thoughthepreventiveuseofchem- and more complete, and include a holistic vision of sustain-
ically synthesised allopathic medicinal products is not ability.Theseprinciplesshowthatorganicagricultureismuch
permitted,andwhenneededitshouldbelimitedtoastrict morethantherenunciationofagro-chemicalsorpharmaceu-
minimum.Inorganicagricultureandinagroecology,nat- ticals.Thisseemstobealsodue to a long participatory and
ural medicines and treatments (phytotherapeutic, transdisciplinary task force approach within IFOAM,
homoepathic products, trace elements) shall be used in thus principles such as fairness and care are also de-
preferencetochemicallysynthesisedallopathicveterinary fined. The EU regulations are more a technocratic de-
treatmentorantibiotics.IFOAMincludesalsoAyurvedic velopment of regulations in which holistic principles are
medicineandacupuncture.InEUthoseproductsmustbe only of secondary importance. Finally, agroecology has
listedinAnnexV.InorganicEUandIFOAM,theuseof a defined set of principles for ecological management of
hormones is prohibited. Agroecology mentions also a agri-food systems and also includes some socio-economic
broadrangeofdiseasepreventionmethods. principles.
Manypracticesproposedincropproductionaresimilarfor
EUorganic,IFOAM,andagroecology(Fig.3).Thisincludes
soil tillage, soil fertility and fertilisation, crop and cultivar
6Discussion choice, crop rotation, and pest, disease, and weed manage-
ment.Incontrast,theorigin,sources,andquantityofproducts
6.1Conformityanddifferencesofprinciplesandpractices potentially used for soil fertilisation and pest, disease, and
incropandanimalproductionoforganicfarming weed management are different. The obligation of organic
andagroecology certifiedseedsis,forexample,onlymentionedunderEUor-
ganics,butdonotappearfortheothers.Similarly,forexample
Theprinciplesoforganicfarming(EUandIFOAM)andag- IFOAMonlylistspracticestopreservewaterquality,monitor
roecology(Table1)haveseveralconformitiesbutalsosome waterextraction,andrecyclerainwater,andagroecologyonly
specificdifferences.Theircommonvisionisonethatfavours listsintercroppingandagroforestry.
ecologicallybasedpracticesandagriculturalmanagementthat AlsoTPOrganics(2017)strengthenresearchandinnova-
preserve biodiversity and sustainably use natural resources, tion for organics and other agroecological approaches that
63 Page10of18 Agron.Sustain.Dev.(2017)37:63
ctices Agroecology(WezelandPeeters2014;PeetersandWezel2017) Optimummanagementoforganicmattersandtransferbetweenlivestockandarableland(manure)andbetweenarablelandandlivestock(litter,forage,by-products)toclosethematterandnutrientcycling. Systematicuseofpreventionmethodstoapplyintegrateddiseaseandparasitecontrol(e.g.rotationalgrazing,balancedfeeding,adaptedhousing,hygiene,rusticbreeds,mixedgrazingofdifferentlivestockspecies). Useoflocallyadaptedbreedsformaximumuseofgrasslandstoreduceconcentratefeedincludingcommercialfeed.Useofmoderntypesofdouble-goalbreedstohavebothmeatandmilkproductiontolimithyper-specialisationofhighyieldinganimalswhileconservinggoodincome. Nospecificationstohousing,just:systematicuseofpreventionmethods(e.g.rotationalgrazing,balancedfeeding,adaptedhousing,hygiene,rusticbreeds,mixedgrazingofdifferentlivestockspecies).
a
cesinorganicagriculturecomparedtoagroecologicalpr OrganicagricultureIFOAMNorms(IFOAM2014) Landlessanimalhusbandrysystemsareprohibited. Ensurethattheenvironment,thefacilities,stockingdensityandflock/herdsizeprovidesforthebehaviouralneedsoftheanimals.Allanimalsshallhaveunrestrictedanddailyaccesstopastureorasoilbasedonopenairexerciseareaorrun,withvegetation,wheneverthephysiologicalconditionoftheanimal,theweatherandthestateofthegroundpermit. Breedingsystemsshallbebasedonbreedsthatcanreproducesuccessfullyundernaturalconditionswithouthumaninvolvement. Whereanimalsrequirebedding,provideadequatenaturalmaterials.Beddingmaterialsthatarenormallyconsumedbytheanimalsshallbeorganic.Buildingconstructionprovidesforinsulation,heating,coolingandventilationofthebuilding,ensuringthataircirculation,dustlevels,temperature,relativeairhumidity,andgasconcentrationsarewithinlevelsthatarenotharmfultothelivestock.Noanimalsshallbekeptinclosedcages.Animalsareprotectedfrompredationbywildandferalanimals.Animalsareregularlyvisitedandmonitored.Whenwelfareandhealthproblemsoccur,appropriatemanagementadjustmentsareimplemented(e.g.reducingstockingdensity).
cti
UregulationsandIFOAMnormsconcerninganimalpra OrganicagricultureEUregulation(EC2007;EC2008) Livestockproductionrelatedtotheland,wheretheproducedmanureisusedtonourishthecropproduction. Animalsshouldhave,wheneverpossible,accesstoopenairorgrazingareas,weatherconditionspermitting,andsuchopenairareasshouldinprinciplebeorganisedunderanappropriatesystemofrotation.Particularattentionshouldbepaidtohousingconditions,husbandrypracticesandstockingdensities.AnnexIVMaximumnumberofanimalsperhectare.Animal-healthmanagementshouldmainlybebasedonpreventionofdisease.Animalsshallbeselectedtoavoidspecificdiseasesorhealthproblemsassociatedwithsomebreedsorstrainsusedinintensiveproduction.Preferenceistobegiventoindigenousbreedsandstrains. Insulation,heatingandventilationofthebuildingshallensurethataircirculation,dustlevel,temperature,relativeairhumidityandgasconcentration,arekeptwithinlimitswhicharenotharmfultotheanimals.Thebuildingshallpermitplentifulnaturalventilationandlighttoenter.Stockingdensity:provideforthecomfort,thewell-beingandthespecies-specificneedsoftheanimals(species,breed,age).Takeintoaccountthebehaviouralneedsoftheanimals(inparticularthe’sizeofthegroupandanimalssex).Providesufficientspacetostandnaturally,liedowneasily,turnround,groomthemselves,assumeallnaturalposturesandmakeallnaturalmovementssuchasstretchingandwingflapping.AnnexIII:Theminimumsurfaceforindoorandoutdoorareas,andothercharacteristicsofhousingfordifferentspeciesandcategoriesofanimals.Specifichousingconditionsandhusbandrypracticesformammals,poultryandbeekeepingareprovided.
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Table3Descriptioni Categoryofpractices Integrationofcroppingandanimalsystems Animalmanagement Breedchoice Animalhousing Animalwelfare