Table Of ContentCONTROLLED
RELEASE
FERTILIZERS FOR
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
Edited by
F.B. LEWU
Department of Agriculture, Cape Peninsula University of
TechnologyWellingtonCampus,Wellington,SouthAfrica
TATIANA VOLOVA
Department of Biotechnology, Siberian Federal
University, Krasnoyarsk, Russia
SABU THOMAS
School of Energy Materials; Schoolof Chemical Sciences,
InternationalandInter-UniversityCentreforNanoscience
and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India
RAKHIMOL K.R.
InternationalandInter-UniversityCentreforNanoscience
and Nanotechnology, Mahatma Gandhi University,
Kottayam, Kerala, India
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Contributors
AshithaA.
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
SoumiaAboulhrouz
VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco
AimanE.Al-Rawajfeh
DepartmentofChemicalEngineering,TafilaTechnicalUniversity,Tafila,Jordan
MohammadR.Alrbaihat
MinistryofEducation,Ajman,UnitedArabEmirates
EhabM.AlShamaileh
DepartmentofChemistry,TheUniversityofJordan,Amman,Ajman,Jordan
OthmaneAmadine
VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco
SubinBalachandran
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
VinayaChandran
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
KarimDanoun
VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco
YounessEssamlali
VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco
IkramGanetri
VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco
JesiyaSusanGeorge
InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma
GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
AbdulGhaffar
DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
RakhimolK.R.
InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma
GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
JayachandranK.
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
NandakumarKalarikkal
InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma
GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
ix
x Contributors
JyothisMathew
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
LinuMathew
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
StalinNadarajan
InstituteofPlantScience,AROVolcaniCenter,RishonLezion,Israel
MuhammadYasinNaz
DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
ChandraWahyuPurnomo
ChemicalEngineeringDepartment,UniversitasGadjahMada,Sleman,Yogyakarta,
Indonesia
MayaRajan
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
HensSaputra
AgencyfortheAssessmentandApplicationofTechnology,Jakarta,Indonesia
S.Shahena
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
HithaShaji
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
ShaziaShukrullah
DepartmentofPhysics,UniversityofAgriculture,Faisalabad,Punjab,Pakistan
ReshmaSoman
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
SuryaSukumaran
SchoolofPureandAppliedPhysics,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
SabuThomas
InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma
GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
RemyaV.R.
InternationalandInterUniversityCentreforNanoscienceandNanotechnology,Mahatma
GandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
MohamedZahouily
VARENACenter,MAScIRFoundation,RabatDesign,Rabat,Morocco;Laboratoirede
Matériaux,CatalyseetValorisationdesRessourcesNaturelles,UniversitéHassanII-
Casablanca,Morocco
CHAPTER 1
Conventional methods of
fertilizer release
S. Shahena, Maya Rajan, Vinaya Chandran, Linu Mathew
SchoolofBiosciences,MahatmaGandhiUniversity,Kottayam,Kerala,India
1. Introduction
Thefertilizerisanykindofmaterialthatisappliedtosoilortoplanttissues
to supply one or more plant nutrients essential to the growth of plants. It
may be natural or synthetically produced [1].
Managementofsoilfertilityhasbeenagreatproblemforthefarmersfor
thousands of years. Records showed that Egyptians, Romans, Babylonians,
and early Germans were using minerals and manure to enhance the
productivityoftheirfarms.Themodernscienceofplantnutritionstartedin
the 19th century with the work of German chemist Justus von Liebig [1].
The Haber process and the Ostwald process developed in the 1910 and
1920s made a great revolution in the fertilizer manufacturing Industry.
Ammonia (NH ) is produced from methane (CH ) gas and molecular
3 4
nitrogen (N ) through the Haber process, which is then converted into
2
nitric acid (HNO ) in the Ostwald process [2].
3
The nitrogen-based fertilizer production was started with Birkelande
Eyde process, which was one of the most competing industrial processes in
the nitrogen-based fertilizer production. In this process, the atmospheric
nitrogen (N ) is fixed into nitric acid (HNO ) through nitrogen fixation.
2 3
(cid:1)
The nitric acid was then used as a source of nitrate (NO ) [3].
3
Nowadays, it has been estimated that almost half the people on the
Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer. The
development of synthetic fertilizer has significantly supported global
populationgrowth[4].Inthelast50years,theuseofcommercialfertilizers
has been increasing steadily; reaching almost 100 million tons of nitrogen
peryear,anditisestimatedthataboutone-thirdofthefoodproducednow
could not be produced without the addition of fertilizers [5]. The use of
phosphate fertilizers has also increased from nine million tons per year in
1960 to 40 million tons per year in 2000. Yara International is the world’s
largest producer of nitrogen-based fertilizers [6,7].
ControlledReleaseFertilizersforSustainableAgriculture
ISBN978-0-12-819555-0 ©2021ElsevierInc.
1
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819555-0.00001-7 Allrightsreserved.
2 ControlledReleaseFertilizersforSustainableAgriculture
Thesupplyofnutrientsmustbeoptimumforthemaximumyieldofany
crop. The nutrient deficiency will result in stunting of plants and that will
gradually reduce the yield by slowing down the progress of the growth
cycle, causing late fruiting and delayed maturity. The ability of the crop to
absorb the nutrients from the soil depends upon the biological activity.
Normallythenutrientdeficiencytakesplaceduringthegrowingseasonand
dependsonthetemperature andmoisturecontent ofthesoil[8].Fertilizers
enhance plant growth traditionally; either as, being additives that provide
nutrients or by enhancing the effectiveness of the soil by modifying its
water retention and aeration [9]. Also, an important component of the
weedmanagementprogramistheefficientandappropriatemanagementof
fertilizerintermsofevaluationofbestsourceofnutrients,optimumratesof
fertilization, proper timing, and suitable fertilizer placement [3,10].
The essential prerequisite for optimizing nutrient application is the
detailed knowledge about the addition of nutrients, i e., the absorption of
nutrients by the plants. The applied nutrients should satisfy the plant
requirementsandthemethodusedfortheapplicationshouldminimizethe
leachingtotheenvironmentandtherebycontroltherateofenvironmental
pollution [11]. The type of fertilizer, timing of fertilizer application, and
seasonal trends are the major factors that affect the efficiency of the applied
N(nitrogen)tosatisfytheNdemandofthecrops[12,13].Theefficiencyof
thecropstoabsorbtheNisinfluencedbythesoiltype,cropsequence,and
the residual and mineralized N [14]. The reduction of nitrogen loss and
increase in the N use efficiency can be improved by numerous strategies.
For example, the use of N sources, consumption of slow-release fertilizer,
proper placement techniques, and also by the use of N inhibitors [15e17].
The plant metabolism is coupled with the availability of the N sources
because it has a fundamental role in the plant metabolism. It is necessary to
optimize the management of N resources to the cropping system to increase
itsNuseefficiencyandtherebyimprovetheproductivity[18].Normally,this
can be achieved either by increasing the production of N in the soil or by
increasingtheaccumulationofNcompoundsintheediblepartofthecrop[15].
The nutrients requiredfor healthy plant life are classifiedon thebasis of
the elements; but these elements are not used directly as fertilizers. The
compounds containing these elements are the basis of fertilizers. The
macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities by the plants. They are
present in plant tissue in quantities from 0.15% to 6.0% on a dry matter
(DM)(0%moisture)basis.Plantsaremadeupoffourmainelementssuchas
hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon
Conventionalmethodsoffertilizerrelease 3
will be available in the form of water and carbon dioxide. The nitrogen is
found in the atmosphere as atmospheric nitrogen which is unavailable to
plants. So the nitrogen is considered as the most important fertilizer since
nitrogen is present in proteins, DNA, and other components such as
chlorophyll. Some bacteria and their host leguminous plants can fix
atmospheric nitrogen (N ) by converting it to ammonia. Phosphate is
2
required for the production of DNA and ATP, the main energy carrier in
cells, as well as certain lipids.
The fertilizer contains:
(cid:129) Three main macronutrients:
◦ Nitrogen (N): leaf growth
◦ Phosphorus (P): Development of roots, flowers, seeds, fruit
◦ Potassium (K): Strong stem growth, movement of water in plants,
promotion of flowering and fruiting
(cid:129) Three secondary macronutrients: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and
sulfur (S)
(cid:129) Micronutrients: copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum
(Mo), zinc (Zn), boron (B). Of occasional significance are silicon (Si),
cobalt (Co), and vanadium (V).
Micronutrients are required in smaller quantities, in parts-per-million
(ppm) and are present at the active sites of enzymes in the plant tissues that
carry out the plant’s metabolism [19].
2. Classification
Fertilizers are classified in several ways.
2.1 Based on the nutrient supply
On the basis of the nutrient supply, the fertilizers can be classified into
straight fertilizers and complex fertilizers.
2.1.1 Single nutrient or straight fertilizers
Asthenameindicates,thesinglenutrientorstraightnutrientfertilizersprovide
asinglenutrienttotheplants(e.g.,K,P,orN).Ammoniaoritssolutionsarethe
widelyusednitrogen-basedstraightfertilizers.Ammoniumnitrate(NH NO )
4 3
andureaarepopularsourcesofnitrogen.Ureaishavingtheadvantagethatitis
solidandnonexplosive,unlikeammoniaandammoniumnitrate.
The superphosphates are the main straight phosphate fertilizers. Single
superphosphate (SSP) consists of 14%e18% P O , again in the forms of
2 5
4 ControlledReleaseFertilizersforSustainableAgriculture
Ca(H PO ) and also phosphogypsum (CaSO4$2H O). The main con-
2 4 2 2
stituentsoftriplesuperphosphate(TSP)are44%e48%ofP O andnogypsum.
2 5
Amixtureofsinglesuperphosphateandtriplesuperphosphateiscalleddouble
superphosphate.Mostofthe(morethan90%)typicalsuperphosphatefertilizer
iswater-soluble[20].
MuriateofPotash(MOP)isthemainpotassium-basedstraightfertilizer.
Muriate of Potash consists of 95%e99% KCl, and is typically available as
0-0-60 or 0-0-62 fertilizer [21].
2.1.2 Multinutrient or complex fertilizers
The multinutrient or complex fertilizers provide two or more nutrients
(e.g., N and P). The commonly used fertilizers are the complex fertilizers.
Since they consist of two or more nutrient components, they are again
classified into binary fertilizers and three-component fertilizers or NPK
fertilizers [20].
2.1.2.1 Binary (NP, NK, and PK) fertilizers
Since they provide both nitrogen and phosphorus to the plants they are
called NP fertilizers, e.g., monoammonium phosphate (MAP) and dia-
mmoniumphosphate(DAP).TheactiveingredientinMAPisNH H PO
4 2 4
andtheactiveingredientinDAPis(NH ) HPO .About85%ofMAPand
4 2 4
DAP fertilizers are soluble in water.
2.1.2.2 NPK fertilizers
Nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassiumcontainingfertilizersarecalledthree-
component fertilizers or NPK fertilizers.
2.2 Based on the presence or absence of carbon
2.2.1 Organic fertilizer
Organic fertilizers are recycled plant- or animal-derived matter.
2.2.2 Inorganic fertilizer
Inorganic fertilizers or synthetic fertilizers are synthesized by various
chemical treatments [20].
3. Mode of application
Theapplicationratesoffertilizerdependonthesoilfertility.Thefertilityof
a soil is usually as measured by a soil test according to the particular crop.
The method of applying fertilizers depends on the nature of crop plants,
their nutrient needs, and the soil (Table 1.1).
Table1.1 Acomparisonofdifferent methodsoffertilizerapplication.
Typeof Mode of
fertilizer application Advantages Disadvantages
Solid A. Broad casting 1. Uniform distribution. 1. The plants in the field cannot fully
fertilizers a. Basal 2. Completely mix with soil. utilize the fertilizers.
application 3. Supplying nitrogen in readily available 2. Due to the presence of fertilizer all
b. Top dressing form to growing plants. over the field, the weeds also absorb
the nutrients and the weed growth is
also stimulated by the fertilizer.
3. Large amount of the fertilizer is needed
and nutrients are fixed in the soil.
B. Placement 1. Suitable for dry land areas and paddy 1. Due to the higher concentration of the
a. Plough sole fields. soluble salts, the germinated seeds and
placement 2. Used for the placement of ammoniacal young plants may get damaged. C
o
b. Deep nitrogenous fertilizers particularly in the nv
e
placement root zone soil. ntio
c. Localized 3. Prevents the loss of nutrients by runoff. na
l
placement 4. Only adequate amount of fertilizer is m
e
(cid:129) Drilling applied to the soil close to the seed or to th
o
(cid:129) Side the roots of growing plants. ds
dressing 5. Suitable for the application of phosphatic of
fe
and potassic fertilizers in the case of rtiliz
cereal crops. e
r
6. There is minimum contact between the re
le
soil and the fertilizer. ase
Continued
5
6
Table1.1 Acomparisonofdifferent methodsoffertilizerapplication.dcont’d
Typeof Mode of Co
n
fertilizer application Advantages Disadvantages tro
7. The nutrients are available only for the lled
R
crop plants and the weeds all over the ele
field cannot make use of the fertilizers. ase
8. Higher residual response of fertilizers. Fe
C. Band placement 1. Application of fertilizers in orchards. 1. The seasonal change the mode of rtilize
a. Hill 2. Nutrients easily available to the crop application of fertilizer. rsfo
r
placement plants. S
u
b. Row 3. Labor saving. sta
placement ina
b
D. Pellet 1. Used for the placement of nitrogenous 1. Significant reduction of fertilizers in the le
A
application fertilizers in the paddy fields. flood water. g
Liquid A. Starter solutions 1. The application of solution to young 1. Additional labor needed. ricu
fertilizers vegetable plantlets particularly at the time 2. Higher fixation rate of phosphate. lture
of transplantation. 3. The plants get “shocked” due to the
2. Helps in rapid establishment and quick damage to or breaking of roots.
growth of the seedlings.
B. Foliar 1. The leaves can easily and directly absorb
application the nutrients through their stomatal
openings and also through the epidermis.
2. An effective method of fertilization.
3. Leaves can easily absorb several nutrient
elements.
4. The concentration of the fertilizer
solution can be controlled manually.
