Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction

736 Pages·1997·56.86 MB·English

by  Mark Aronoff

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c:1 Popular.
:Qi'liTE" N° 1018 . .
sllog14nl l O 2
• Cor rio.t.t
CONTEMPORARY
LINGUISTICS
AN INTJlODUCTION
T H I R D E ·D I T I 0 N
Edi.ted by
WILLIAM O'GRADY
Universitoy[ H awaii· at Manoa
and
MICHAEL DOBROVOLSKY
·
Universitoyf Calgary
U.S. Edition Prepared by
MARK ARONOFF
StateU niversitoyf N ew York at StonyB rook
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Acknowledgments
Pages 160-162: DouglaCsa mpbelClo uplandE.x cerpftrso mG eneratXi obny Douglas
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Convinced at once that, in order to break loose from )
the beaten paths of opinions and systems, it was necessary
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to proceed in my study of man and society by scientific
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methods, and in a rigorous manner, I devoted one year to
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philology and grammar; linguistics, or the natural history of
speech, being, of all the sciences, that which best suited the )
researches which I was about to commence. J
-PIERRE-PJROOSUEDPHHWO Nh,aI tsP rpoer(ty18?40 ) )
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CONTENTS
Preface ·xxi
Precfeta ot iFlierE sdti tion xxiii
LiosftT ecilnAi�cparle viations xxv
one
LANGUAGE:A PR�VIEW I
AC reaStyisvtee m 1
GrammaLri nagnuCdio smtpiect ence 4
2
2.1 Generality:H aAvlGelr aaL mamnagru ages 5
2.2 EquaAlliGltr ya:m mAarEreqs u al 6
2.3 ChangeaGbrialmimtayrs: CThiamneg e Over 7
2.4 UneirvsaGlriatmymA:ar Arels i kBea sic Ways 8
in
2.5 TacitnGersasm:m aKtniocwallIeSs du gbec onscious 9
2.6 Grammar 10
BioloSgpieccailaf loiLrza antgiuoang e 11
3
SummiUnpg 12
KeyT enns 12
Sources 13
RecommeRnedaeddi ng 13
Questio·n · s 13
two
PHONETICST:H E SOUNDSO F LANGUAGE 15
PhonTertaincs crippon 16
i.1- UniotRfse presentation 16
1.2 Segments 17
ThSeo und-PrSoydsutceimn g 17
2
2.1 ThLeu ngs 18
2.2 ThLea rynx 18
2.3 GlotSttaalt es 19
3 Sound Classes 20
3.1 VoweClosn,s onaannGdtl si,d es 20
4 ConsoAnratnitc ulation 22
4.1 ThTeon gue 23
4.2 PlaocfAe rst iculation 23
MannoefAr r:t;i culation 24
r
viii CONTENTS
5.1O ravle rsNuass Pahlo nes 24
5.2 Stops 24
5.3F ricatives 25
5.4Af fcraites 27
S.SV oicLea ga ndA spiration 28
S.6L iquids 30
5.7 SyllaLbiiqcu ainddsN asals 31
5.8G lides 31
6 Vowels 32
6.1S impVloew ealnsd D iphthongs 32
6.2B asPiacr ameftoeDrre ss criVboiwnegl s 33
6.3T ensaen dL axV owels 34
7 Phonetic TraonfAs mcerriipcEtaningo lnCi oshn sonaanntdVs o wels 3S
8 Suprasegmentals 37
8.1P itcTohn:ae n dI ntonation 37
8.2L ength 41
8.3S tress 42
9 ArticulPartoocreys ses 43
9.1C oarticulation 43
9 .2Pr oceasnsdeE fsf iiecncy 4S
9.3P roceasnsdCe lsa rity 4S
9.4T ypeosfA rticulPartoocreys ses 46
1 O OtheVro wealnsdC onsonants 49
10.1V owels SO
10.2C onso.nants SO
SummiUnpg 53
KeyTe rms 54
So11rces SS
RecommeRnedaeddi ng SS
AppenTdihxe: IntePrhnoanteAitloipncha al(b ceotn densed) 56
Questions S 7
Fotri Slteu dLeinntg u"iDsotnW:'o rtr ayb oS1pe1ltl ing" 59
three
PHONOLOGY:T HE FUNCTlON ANPDA TTERNINGO F SOUNDS 63
1 SegmeintnCs o ntrast 64
1.M1i nimPaali rs 65
1.2L anguage-SCpoenctirfaisct s 66 ·
2PhonetiCcoanldliyt iVoanreida tPihoonn:e maensdA llophones 67
2.1C omplemenDtiasrtyr ibution 67
2.2P honemaensdA llophones 68
2.3C lasasnedGs e neraliiznPa htoinoonl ogy 70
2.4C anadiRaani sing 71
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CONETNTS ix
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2.E5n glVioswhea lnGsdl ides 72
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2.6L anguage-PSaptetceirfnisc 73
PhonetPihco naeTnmrdai ncs cription 75 )
3
AbotvheeSe gment: Syllables 76
4 _)
4.D1e fintihnSegy llable 76
4.O2n seCto nstarnaPdih notnso tactics 77
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4.A3c icedntaanlSd y steGmaaptsi c 78
4.S4e ttUipnS gy llables 79 )
4.S5y llPahboinco logy 82
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5 Features 86
5.W1h yW eU sFee atures 87 )
5.T2h eFe aurteso fE ngshl i 91
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5.R3e preseannttdha Fete iaotHnui reer archy 93
DerivaantRdiu olOnresed i rng 94 _)
6
6.D1e rivations 94
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6.R2u lpepl aiAtcion 95
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6.T3h e FaonNrdom t aotfRi uolne s 96
Representations 99 ,)
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7. 1As simialntadht Feie oantH uireer archy 99
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7.A2u tosegPmreinntcailp les 100
7.T3o nAasls imialsaRa etpiroens entation 102
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7.4 ProceRssuelasen,sd R, e presentAaL taisWoton rsd: 103
SummiUnpg 103 �
Key Tenm 103 ,)
Sources 104
RecommeRnedaeddi ng 105 ,)
AppenHdiinxft:ors S olving PP/rJoobnloelmosg y 105
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Questions 106
Fotrh Set udLeinntg u"iTshFtee: a tPurreets aetnion" 141 )
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MORPHOLOGY: THE ANALYSIS OF WORD STRUCTURE 117 ._)
1 Words anSdt rWuocrtdu re 118 )
1.M1o prhemse 118
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1.R2e presWeonrStdti rnugc ture 121
1.S3o mCeo mmMoonr phological Phenomena1 23
Derivation 128
2 )
2.E1n glDiesrhi vaAtfifoinxaels 128
2.2 DerWiovrka tion at 130 _)
3 Compounding 133 )
3.P1ro epriteosf Compounds 135
3.T2y poefCs o mpounds 136 )
3.3 Compour1ds in Other Languages 136 )
Otehr TypWeosrF do rmation 138
4 of
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CONTENTS
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7� 4.C1o nversion 138
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'" 4.C2l ipping 139
) 4.B3l ends 139
71) 4.B4a ckformation 139
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, 4.A5c ronyms 140
) 4.6O nomatopoeia 140
71) 47.O thSeoru rces 141
b) Inflection 141
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' ) 5.I1n flevcetrDiseournsi vation 142
8"' 5.2E nglIinsfhl eAcftfiioxneasl 144
9)
FurtEhxearm polfIe nsn ection 145
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9� A) 6.N1u mb�r 145
6.N2 ouCnl ass 146
9,).
6.3 Case 147
s ) 6.P4e rasnoNdnu mbAegrr eement 149
9'"
6.T5en se 150
9.)
SummiUnpg 151
9 ) KeyTe nns 151
10"
Note 152
10):
So1.1rces 152
10)
Reoc11111R1eea1d1indge d 153
10?
) AppenHdoiwxl :oI denMtoiprfyh emienUs n afmilLiaag1rC11 ages 153
10s QC1estions 155
10)· .
Fotrh Set 1.1de11"tB aLmibnigfllclaitsito:n " 160
10.'
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SYNTAX: THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCE STRUCTURE 163
) CategaonrSdit ersu cture 164
1
1.W1o rd:CLaetveeglo ries 164
1.P2h rase Structure 167
13.S entences 172
1.T4e stPsh rfSaotsrre u cture 174
1.5x ·C ategories 157
21
) CompleOmpetnito ns 177
23 2
28) 2.C1o mpleOmptieonnsft o Vre rbs 177
2.C2o mpleOmpetniftoo Onrts h Ceart egories 179
28
) 2.C3o mpleCmleanuts es 180
30
33) 3 Transformations 183
3.I1n verisnYe iso-QnNu oe stions 183
35
) 3.D2e eSpt ruacntSduu rrefS atcreu cture 185
36
3.W3h M ovement 186
36
J 3.A4M orDee taLioloaekTtd r aonrsmfations 187
38
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3.5 ConosnTt rnrasafionrtmsa tions 193
) 4 UniveGrrsaamlm aPra raanmdVea rtiraitci on 194
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CONTENTS xi
4.1 VariiantSi yonntC aactteigco ries 195
4.2 VariiantPi horSnat sreu Rcutluerse 196
4.3 Variiatnti hUoesn oe fT r anrsmfaotions 198
5 SomEex tensions 202
5.1 Coordination 202
5.2 Modifiers 204
5.3 RelaCtliavues es 206
OthTeyrp oefSs y ntactic Analysis 208
6
6.1 PassSitvreu ctures 208
6.2 Relational Analysis 209
6.3 FunctAinoanlayls is 212
SummiUnpg 213
KeyTe rms 213
Notes 214
Sources 215
RecommeRnedaeddi ng 216
AppenHdoiwxt :oB uiTlrdeS et rnctures 216
Questions 220
Fotri Slteu dLeinntig su"tB:a ckwards" 225
six
INTERFACES 229
1 Morphology and .Phonology 229
1.1 MorphophRounleemsi c 230
1.2 DeriAvlilnogm orphs 230
1.3 ConditAilolnoemdo rphs 230
1.4 ConditbiyMo onripnhgo lColgaiscsa l 233
1.5 AbstUrnadcetr Rleypirnegs entations 234
PhonoalnoSdgy yn tax 235
2
2.1 EnglSitsrhe ss 235
2.2 EmbedCdoemdp oSutnrde ss 236
3 Morphoalnodg yS yntax 237
SummiUnpg 241
KeyTe rms 241
Socuers 242
RecommeRnedaeddi ng 242
Questions 242
seven
SEMANTICST:H E ANALYSIOSF MEANING 245
The NoafMt euarnei ng 245
1
1.S1e maRnetliacat miooWnnogsr ds 246