Table Of ContentCONFLICT AND PEACE IN THE MODERN
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM
Also by Evan Luard
THE EVOLUTION OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS
THE CONTROL OF THE SEA-BED
*INTERNATIONAL AGENCIES: The Emerging Framework of
Interdependence
TYPES OF INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY
*THE UNITED NATIONS
*SOCIALISM WITHOUT THE STATE
*A HISTORY OF THE UNITED NATIONS, Volume 1: The Years of
Western Domination, 1945-1955
*THE MANAGEMENT OF THE WORLD ECONOMY
*ECONOMIC RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STATES
WAR IN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY
*Also published by Palgrave Macmillan
Conflict and Peace in
the Modern
International System
A Study of the Principles of International
Order
Second (completely revised) edition
EVAN LUARD
M
MACMILLAN
PRESS
© Evan Luard 1968, 1988
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2nd edition 1998 978-0-333-44836-6
First edition (Little, Brown)
Second (completely revised) edition (Macmillan and State
University of New York Press, 1988)
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission
of this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied
or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance
with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended},
or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issues
by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 33-4 Alfred Place,
London WClE 7DP.
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to
this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and
civil claims for damages.
First published 1988
Published by
THE MACMILLAN PRESS LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Luard, Evan
Conflict and peace in the modem
international system: a study of the
principles of international order. -
2nd completely rev. ed.
1. International relations
I. Title
327 JX1395
ISBN 978-0-333-44837-3 ISBN 978-1-349-19305-9 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-19305-9
In memory of my parents
Contents
List of Tables ix
Preface xi
Introduction: The Motives of States 1
1 External Wars 25
2 Frontiers 68
3 Colonies 92
4 Civil Wars 116
5 Arms Control 140
6 Disarmament 168
7 Authority 200
8 Law 241
9 Opinion 266
10 Peace 284
General Conclusions 289
Appendix I Conflicts of motives among states 293
Appendix II United Nations procedures for crisis
situations and their functions 297
Appendix III The main types of international proce-
dures, with comparison of their effectiveness 300
vii
viii Contents
Appendix IV The special nature of international
authority 305
Appendix V Principal wars, 1945-86 308
Index 313
List of Tables
1 Norms, personal and national 20
2 Typical sources of socialisation: personal and national 22
3 External wars, 1866-1986 36
4 External wars, 1945-86, by category 41
5 Conflicts involving the use of force by super-powers,
1945-86 46
6 External wars: international responses, 1945-86 58
7 External wars: available international principles and
procedures 66
8 Frontier wars, 1945-86 72
9 Principal wars concerning minorities, 1945-86 79
10 Frontiers: available international principles and
procedures 91
11 Principal colonial wars, 1918-86 96
12 Colonies: available international principles and
procedures 114
13 Ideological civil wars, 1918-86 118
14 Civil wars: international responses, 1946-86 130
15 UN-supervised referenda and elections 137
16 Civil wars: available UN principles and procedures 138
17 Arms control measures, by function 149
18 Disarmament and arms control agreements, 1899-
1986 153
19 Disarmament discussions and participation, 1899-
1986 170
20 The Concert of Europe: chief congresses and
conferences 201
21 The development of international organisations, 1800-
1986 203
22 UN peace forces: observers and presences, 1946-86 225
ix
Preface
The first edition of this book appeared in 1968. The object of the
book was, first, to examine the forms which armed conflict has
mainly taken in the modem world and especially in the post-1945
world; and, secondly, on that basis to consider what are the
conditions under which a more peaceful international society
might be created.
Order is maintained in most societies by a combination of two
means; one tangible and the other intangible. The first takes the
form of law enforcement by public authorities wielding coercive
power; the second of understandings and conventions among
members of the society concerning the behaviour to be expected of
them. The balance between the two varies greatly from one society
to another. In some, especially modem authoritarian societies,
forcible sanctions play a larger role in the maintenance of order
than consensus concerning values or conduct. In others, especially
smaller and more primitive societies, no centralised machinery for
enforcement may exist at all, and order is maintained almost
entirely by the intangible power of custom and public opinion,
instilling a known and generally respected code of behaviour.
It was the thesis of this book that international society, in which
there exists no central authority having enforcement powers, is
closer in character to a primitive society than to a highly organised
nation with complex machinery for the maintenance of law and
order (a relatively recent phenomenon even within states).
Attempts, therefore, to secure order in international society by
reproducing the machinery of such a state - that is by creating a
central authority with coercive power over the member states, or
by reducing the power of individual states, for example through
disarmament - were unlikely to be successful. A more hopeful
course was, on the contrary, to develop the kind of conventions
and understandings which are the underlying basis of order in less
advanced societies.
The conventions and understandings that are necessary for
modem international society - that is, the rules of peaceful
coexistence - need to take account of the realities of the modem
world: of the nature of the conflicts that take place, and of the
aspirations of individual states, large and small, rich and poor,
xi
