Table Of ContentPrasanna Chandrasekhar
Conducting Polymers,
Fundamentals and
Applications
Including Carbon Nanotubes and
Graphene
Second Edition
Conducting Polymers, Fundamentals
and Applications
Prasanna Chandrasekhar
Conducting Polymers,
Fundamentals
and Applications
Including Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene
Second Edition
PrasannaChandrasekhar
Ashwin-UshasCorporation
Marlboro,NewJersey,USA
ISBN978-3-319-69376-7 ISBN978-3-319-69378-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69378-1
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2017955677
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Preface
Thisbookisarevisededitionofabookbythesameauthor,ConductingPolymers,
FundamentalsandApplications:APracticalApproach,publishedin1999andwell
received at the time. The earlier book addressed a critical need for a primarily
pedagogicalandinstructionaltextinconductingpolymers(CPs)atabasiclevel.It
ended up being used by many academic institutions in graduate- or senior under-
graduate-level courses,aswellasbyawidevarietyofresearchersandstudentsin
thevariedandmultidisciplinaryfieldsinwhichCPshavebeenapplied.Inthenearly
18 years that have passed since that first publication, CPs have fulfilled some
aspirations for their applications but have also disappointed in many others. Nev-
ertheless, they remain a firmly entrenched, yet continually developing, class of
materials used by many researchers in various fields, as the chapter titles of this
bookclearlyillustrate.
Since the first edition in 1999, two new classes of conductive materials have
received much attention and research. These are carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and
graphene. Indeed, one may say that these two classes of materials have received
evenmoreattentionthanCPseverreceivedinthelast18years.Inonecase,thatof
CNTs,aspirationsfortheirapplicationshavesomewhatdisappointed.Intheother
case,thatofgraphene,thereisstillmuchpromiseinfutureapplications.Neverthe-
less, these two classes of materials bear many similarities to CPs, primary among
them being that their unique conductivity properties give rise to a whole host of
other properties with potential applications in areas as diverse as drug delivery,
communication, and metamaterials. Thus, an expansion of the subject material of
thebooktoincludethesenewerclassesandtheconsequent,logicalexpansionofthe
titletoConductingPolymersandOtherNewConductiveMaterialswasinorder.
As in the earlier edition, this book primarily addresses the need for an instruc-
tionaltextatafundamentallevel,togetherwithanintroductiontopotentialappli-
cationsforconductingpolymers(CPs),carbonnanotubes(CNTs),andgraphene.It
can assist a variety of researchers from diverse fields, ranging from materials
scientists,chemists,biologists,physicists,andenvironmentalresearcherstomedi-
cal/pharmacologicalresearchersandevenmedicaldoctorsinvolvedinresearch.
v
vi Preface
While there are several extant texts in each of these three fields, nearly all are
“editor/contributor”textsofahigh-levelandspecializednature,addressingnarrow
subfields.Theyprimarilypresentongoingresearchinthecontributors’laboratories.
Thesetextsoftentimesplungedirectlyintothethickofhigh-levelresearch,withno
pauseforinstruction,orevenanexplanationofterminology,forthenoviceornew
researcher. Thus, they are sometimes quite difficult to follow for persons in areas
thataredifferentfromthechapterauthor’sresearch.
Thisbookisseparatedintosixparts,twoeachforfundamentalsandapplications
for each of the three classes of materials, i.e., conducting polymers (CPs), carbon
nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene. At the end of each chapter, there are problems/
exerciseswhichshouldserveasagoodtestonwhetherthereaderabsorbedatleasta
majorityofthematerialpresentedinthechapter.
Aswiththeearlieredition,thisbookemphasizesapractical,“how-to”approach
andiswritteninsuchawaythatanewresearchercaninstructionallyuseonlythe
parts relevant to his/her present research. The book also targets students, at the
advanced undergraduate or graduate level, and could be included as part of a
comprehensiveintroductiontothesefields.
The author wishes to acknowledge the able assistance of Timothy Ambat in
editingthistext.
Marlboro,NJ,USA PrasannaChandrasekhar
Foreword to the First Edition
Likesemiconductors,organicmaterialswithextendedπ-electronconjugation(e.g.,
“conducting polymers”) can give rise to novel electrical, optical, and magnetic
phenomena.Likesemiconductormaterials,suchphenomenacan,atleasthypothet-
ically, be translated into a variety of useful devices. However, organic π-electron
materials, unlike semiconductors, are not atomic solids but rather are typically
amorphous polymeric materials. Phenomena such as charge transport in organic
materialscanbequitedifferent(e.g.,variablerangehopping)fromthatencountered
insemiconductors,andarangeofmechanismscanbeactivedependingonmaterial
processing.Possible“conductingpolymer”structuresandprocessingprotocolsare
almost limitless. Certainly, the possibilities for “molecular engineering” of
conducting polymers are very large indeed. The construction of devices such as
light-emitting diodes and nonlinear optical switches involves quite different con-
siderations when using π-electron materials compared to the construction of such
devices from semiconductors. Not only are potential applications of π-electron
polymeric materials very impressive in terms of anticipated economic impact of
specific applications, but the anticipated range of applications is very large (e.g.,
light-emittingdiodes,batteries,sensors,photorefractivedevices,electro-andpho-
tochromic devices and materials, microwave absorbing materials, second- and
third-ordernonlinearopticalmaterialsanddevices,etc.).
The field of “conducting polymers” has been very dynamic in its evolution.
From simple-minded pictures of bond alternation defects and application to the
development of lightweight batteries, the field has evolved to include an ever-
widening area of topics and applications. In recent years, applications involving
electroluminescence, photorefractivity,electrochromism,optical nonlinearity, and
sensinghaveparticularlyattractedattention.Theliteratureforeachapplicationarea
hasbecomeenormous(e.g.,thousandsofarticlespublishedonsingletopicssuchas
organiclight-emittingdiodes).Becauseofthevastnessanddiversityofthejournal
andconferenceproceedingsliteraturerelatedtothetopicofconductingpolymers,a
textwrittenfromtheperspectiveofasingle individual isparticularlyusefulasan
educationaltoolforacquaintingscientistswithvariousaspectsofthistopic.
vii
viii ForewordtotheFirstEdition
The importance of the topics covered in the current text certainly makes this
workusefultothescientificcommunity
UniversityofWashington, LarryDalton
Seattle,WA,USA
List of Common Abbreviations
Theabbreviationslistedbelowareclassifiedintothefollowingcategories:
General
CommonConductingPolymers
OtherPolymers
Monomers
Dopants
Chemicals,Solvents
Techniques,Methodology
Abbreviation Explanation
General:
AC Alternatingcurrent
AFM Atomicforcemicroscopy
ASTM- TestingorotherstandardsissuedbytheAmericanSocietyforTesting
andMaterials
CB Conductionband
CON1/2/3 1st,2nd,and3rdconfigurationsusedinAshwinelectrochemical
devices
CP Conductingpolymer
CV Cyclicvoltammetry
DC Directcurrent
DPV Differentialpulsevoltammetry
EA Electronaffinity
e-beam Electronbeam
E Fermilevel(primarilyinthecontextofsemiconductors)
F
E E(gap),bandgapenergy
g
EIS Electrochemicalimpedancespectroscopy
EMI Electromagneticinterference
EMI-SE Electromagneticinterferenceshieldingeffectiveness
(continued)
ix
x ListofCommonAbbreviations
Abbreviation Explanation
EO,E/O,E-O Electro-optic
ESD Electrostaticdischarge
ESR Electronspinresonance
EXAFS ExtendedX-rayabsorptionfinestructure
FET Field-effecttransistor
FWHM Fullwidthathalfmaximum(peakhalfwidth)
HOMO Highestoccupiedmolecularorbital
H-T Head-to-tail(coupling)
I ,IP Ionizationpotential
p
ITO Indiumtinoxide
ITO Indiumtinoxidethinfilm
I-V Current-voltage(curves,etc.)
LB Langmuir–Blodgett
LC Liquidcrystal(s)
LCD Liquidcrystaldisplay
LEC Light-emittingelectrochemicalcell(s)
LED Light-emittingdiode
LSV Linearsweepvoltammetry
LUMO Lowestoccupiedmolecularorbital
MIL-,MIL-C-, MilitarystandardsissuedbytheUSDept.ofDefense
MIL-STD-
MWt,MW Molecularweight
NPV Normalpulsevoltammetry
PV Photovoltaic(s)
QCM Quartzcrystalmicrobalance
RCS Radarcrosssection
S,S/cm Siemen,Siemen/cm(Siemen,unitofimpedance,¼Ω-1)
SC Semiconductor
SCALE Symmetricallyconfiguredalternatingcurrentlightemitting
SCE Saturatedcalomelelectrode
STM Scanningtunnelingmicroscopy
SWV Squarewavevoltammetry
VB Valenceband
XPS X-rayphotoelectronspectrometry
CommonConductingPolymers:
BBB seep.423
BBL seep.423
PBT seep.423
P(....) Poly(....)
P(Ac) Polyacetylene(s)
P(ANi),PANI,PAN Poly(aniline)
P(DiAc) Poly(diacetylene(s))
P(DPA) Poly(diphenylamine)
PPO seep.423
(continued)
