Computers and Celestial Mechanics in the work of Wallace J. Eckert by Allan Olley A thesis ...

321 Pages·2010·3.53 MB·English

Just a Beginning: Computers and Celestial Mechanics in
the work of Wallace J. Eckert
by
Allan Olley
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Institute for History and Philosophy of Science
University of Toronto
Copyright ' 2011 by Allan Olley
Abstract
Just a Beginning: Computers and Celestial Mechanics in the work of Wallace J. Eckert
Allan Olley
Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Institute for History and Philosophy of Science
University of Toronto
2011
This thesis details and analyzes the interaction between computers and science in a
particular case. The case is the career of Wallace J. Eckert (1902-1971). Eckert was a
professor of astronomy at Columbia University and scientific researcher for IBM. He has
received some attention in the history of computing for his significant work in machine
computation in the 1930s and 1940s and was the foremost expert on lunar theory for
much of his life.
First the existing secondary literature on the subject is discussed. Eckert’s work has
rarely been the focus of sustained historical scrutiny, but the question of the relation
of science and the computer has received more scholarship in the history, philosophy
and sociology of science. The main narrative of the thesis begins with the history of the
variousmathematicaltechniquesandexternalaidstocomputationusedoverthecourseof
the history of celestial mechanics. Having set the context, Eckert’s early life and career is
detailed up until 1945. Here, before the modern computer as such was developed, Eckert
innovated by adapting IBM punched card machines to astronomical applications. Next
Eckert’s time as a scientific researcher employed by IBM after 1945 is detailed. Here he
helped establish a culture of scientific research at IBM, demonstrated the value of IBM’s
products for science, aided in the development of new more complex machine designs
includingelectronicsystemsandcontinuedhisownastronomicalresearch. Eckert’smajor
projects on electronic machines are described, especially those in lunar theory, with
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explanation of how his astronomical methods remained the same or were modified and
expanded by later electronic machines and how he innovated with the machines at his
disposal.
Intheconclusion,aftersummarizinglaterdevelopmentsincelestialmechanics,broader
questions about the modern computer’s role in science are engaged. Continuity between
pre and post computer methods is well illustrated by Eckert’s work. His work also shows
that while the computer was a force for change in celestial mechanics, the form of that
change depended on the choices, resources and practices of the people using it.
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Dedication
Dedicatedtomyparentswithoutwhosesupportthisthesismightneverhavebeenwritten
and the the memory of Herb Grosch who helped cement my interest in Wallace J. Eckert.
Acknowledgements
This dissertation is the result of many years of work and over these years I have received
help and support from many quarters. I would first like to thank my interview subjects,
Herbert Grosch, Harry F. Smith and Martin Gutzwiller for their cooperation and time.
This thesis would have been poorer without their unique perspectives.
The archival sources were vital to the work of this thesis. Therefore I must thank
the IBM archives, the Charles Babbage Insitute, home of Wallace J. Eckert’s papers and
Special Collections of the University of North Carolina at Raleigh for access to their
material and the aid of their research staff.
My supervisor Craig Fraser’s feedback and advice has shaped the course of this thesis
immeasurably. The advice of Janis Langins and Jim Brown who were on my committee
during the course of the writing of this thesis and for my specialist exam has also left
its mark. Finally the commentary and participation of my defense committee, Paul
Ceruzzi,CraigFraser, JanisLangins, MargaretMorrisonandChenPangYeang,isgreatly
appreciated.
I have also benefitted from innumerable conversations with people in the wider aca-
demic community both at University of Toronto and beyond. In particular I have bene-
fitted from my discussions with three fellow students, Isaac Record, Scott Campbell and
Bruce Petrie. Over the years many more colleagues at UofT have offered advice and
thoughts on my work.
In the wider community, special mention goes to Frank da Cruz, maintainer of the
“Computing at Columbia Timeline” website, who has been an important source of in-
formation during this work, both on his website and in private correspondence. I also
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carried on a short but fruitful correspondence with Curtis Wilson on E. W. Brown and
lunar theory.
Academic conferences have been an important venue for discussion of my work. In
particular the Society for History of Technology annual meetings provided ample oppor-
tunity for discussion with interested peers. I would like to acknowledge here the advice
and support of Joe November, Akera Atsushi, Chigusa Kita and Thomas Haigh. Again
many more go unnamed.
During the course of the research for this thesis I was supported by the Social Science
and Humanities Research Council of Canada CGS Doctoral Fellowship for three years. I
was also a recipient of the Ontario Graduate Scholarship during my Masters studies at
University of Toronto when I began the research that led to this dissertation.
ImustalsothankmyparentswhoencourageandsupportmeineverythingIdo. Their
encouragement during the later days of the writing of this thesis is especially appreciated.
In particular my mother’s help proof reading various drafts of this thesis. All mistakes
in this thesis remain my own.
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Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 The Methods of Celestial Mechanics 12
2.1 Numerical Methods in Astronomy before Copernicus . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Copernicus to Newton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3 The Eigthteenth Century: The Three-Body Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4 New Planets, New Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5 Lunar Theory After Laplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6 Machine Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.7 Other Early 20th Century Developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3 Eckert Before the Computer 69
3.1 Eckert’s Early Life and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Comrie and Early Developments in Punched Card Methods . . . . . . . . 72
3.3 Eckert’s Early Work with Punched Cards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.4 Origin and Work of the Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau 85
3.5 Dr. Eckert Goes to Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.6 Impact of Eckert’s Work with Punched Card Machines . . . . . . . . . . 110
4 Ever Onward - Eckert at IBM 115
4.1 Setting up the T. J. Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory . . . . . . 116
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4.2 Development and use of the SSEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.3 Projects for the SSEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.4 Legacies of the SSEC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.5 Eckert as Promoter of New Computing Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.6 Eckert’s assistants at IBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.7 Eckert as scientific advisor to IBM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5 Eckert’s Work on the SSEC 151
5.1 Direct Calculation of Brown’s Lunar Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.2 Features of the SSEC Displayed in the Lunar Problem . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.3 Comparison of the SSEC Results to Brown’s Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.4 Compilation of the Improved Lunar Ephemeris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.5 Implications and Impact of Improved Lunar Ephemeris Calculations . . . 168
5.6 Numerical Integration of the Outer Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.7 Computing the Coordinates of the Outer Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.8 Features of the SSEC Displayed in the Outer Planets Integration . . . . . 185
5.9 Impact of the SSEC work: End of the Beginning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6 Eckert’s Later Work on Lunar Theory 194
6.1 Eckert’s Continued Work on Airy’s Method for Lunar Theory . . . . . . 194
6.2 Eckert and The Hollow Moon Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.3 Eckert’s Refinements to Lunar Theory and the Mission to the Moon . . . 223
6.4 Eckert’s Unfinished Lunar Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7 Conclusion 240
7.1 Lunar Theory and Celestial Mechanics After Eckert . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.2 Continuity and Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.3 Negative Reactions to the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.4 Eckert as Trader on the Computer Frontier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
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7.5 Computer Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
7.6 After the Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
A Glossary 265
Bibliography 280
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Chapter 1
Introduction
Astronomy is perhaps the oldest of the exact sciences. Starting from the naked eye, the
tools of the observational astronomer have multiplied over the course of history, from
gnomon and simple compasses to massive telescopes, spectroscopes and radio antenna.
However astronomical theory lacked this accretion of material culture for most of the
discipline’s history. The pen and paper seemed to be all that was needed for the the-
oretician’s craft. A closer inspection reveals that their work has adopted various aids
to computation that augmented and changed the work. The invention of writing and
mathematical notation itself was the first material aid to human computation, eventu-
ally mathematicians wrote multiplication tables and tables of other functions. Tables of
chords, sets of numbers for use in calculation, precursors of later trigonometric tables,
appear in the classic work of ancient Greek astronomy Ptolemy’s (c.90-c.160) Almagest,
in the 2nd century of the Common Era (C.E.). (Ptolemy 1952, 21-24) Eventually me-
chanical calculators would be used to ease the researchers labours and finally calculations
would be fully automated with the advent of the modern computer.
Since at least the fifth century B.C.E. in Seleucid Babylon, attempts have been made
to predict, through calculations, the motion of the planets and the Moon. (Neugebauer
1962, 102) With the emergence of the Newtonian theory of gravity and calculus, calcu-
1
Chapter 1. Introduction 2
lations became based on inductively derived universal physical principles, rather than
the attempt to find particular cyclic patterns in past observations. However, solving the
equations of motions for more than two bodies under gravitational force yields no finite
solution. The methods required to determine an approximation of a celestial body’s mo-
tion are complex and arduous. (Linton 2004, 295-298) Astronomical calculations were a
fertile ground for innovation including automation by machine.
Wallace J. Eckert (1902-1971), Columbia University astronomer and IBM researcher,
was one of the first to automate astronomical calculations. He tackled problems in
celestial mechanics, first with IBM punched card accounting machines in the 1930s, then
in 1948 with IBM’s first large scale general purpose electronic machine the Selective
Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC). Eckert would continue to use IBM’s computers
to solve problems in celestial mechanics up until his death in 1971. These efforts led to
his recognition as both a pioneer in the field of computers and an important figure in
celestial mechanics.
Mainstream histories of computing note Eckert’s importance. For example, Herman
H. Goldstine (1913-2004) called Eckert “perhaps the greatest modern figure in numerical
astronomy.” (Goldstine 1993, 109) Goldstine also credited Eckert’s collaboration with
IBM as developing a flexibility at IBM towards scientific customers that may have been
key to their future success in electronic computers. (Goldstine 1993, 110) Despite this
high praise, Goldstine failed to describe Eckert’s actual work in astronomy beyond a brief
mention of his use of IBM’s SSEC for improving on E. W. Brown’s (1866-1938) tables.
The omission is surprising given Goldstine’s review of work in lunar theory leading up
to Eckert’s own (Goldstine 1993, 27-30, 107-109, 327). Eckert’s work has not been much
studied or reviewed by historians beyond brief mentions in broader histories and entries
in encyclopedic reference works.
An example of a briefer account of Eckert’s work is the Dictionary of Scientific Bi-
ography entry by Henry S. Tropp (1927-2007). The particulars of Eckert’s life and work