Table Of ContentComparative Government
and Politics
An Introduction
6th Edition
Rod Hague
and
Martin Harrop
© Rod Hague and Martin Harrop 1982, 1987, 2001, 2004
© Rod Hague, Martin Harrop and Shaun Breslin 1992, 1998
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication
may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save
with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited
copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road,
London W1T 4LP.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this
work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First edition 1982
Second edition 1987
Third edition 1992
Fourth edition 1998
Fifth edition 2001
Sixth edition 2004
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Printed in China
PART I Foundations
1
Politics and government
1
2
The state in a global context
17
3
Democracy
35
4
Authoritarian rule
51
5
The comparative approach
69
PART II Politics and society
6
Political culture
89
7
Political communication
105
8
Political participation
122
PART III Linking society and government
9
Elections and voters
145
10
Interest groups
166
11
Political parties
185
PART IV Government and policy
12
Constitutions and the legal framework
209
13
Federal, unitary and local government
228
14
Legislatures
247
15
The political executive
268
16
The bureaucracy
290
17
The policy process
309
Summary of Contents
v
vi
List of illustrative material
viii
Preface
x
PART I Foundations
1 Politics and government
Politics
3
Government
4
Governance
6
The state and sovereignty
7
Nations and nationalism
8
Nations and states
10
Power
12
Authority
13
Legitimacy
15
Key reading
16
2 The state in a global context
How the state emerged
17
The Western state
19
The post-colonial state
21
The state and international organizations
25
The state in the global economy
30
Key reading
34
3 Democracy
Direct democracy
36
Representative and liberal democracy
38
Waves of democratization
39
New democracies
43
Semi-democracy
46
Key reading
49
4 Authoritarian rule
Traditional authoritarian rule
51
Communist, fascist and military rule
53
The Arab and Muslim worlds
62
China in transition
66
Key reading
68
5 The comparative approach
Why compare?
69
The risks of comparison
71
Comparing institutions, societies and states
75
Techniques of comparison
79
Key reading
85
PART II Politics and society
6 Political culture
The civic culture
89
Political trust and social capital
90
Postmaterialism
93
Political culture in new democracies
95
Political culture in authoritarian states
96
Elite political culture
98
Political socialization
100
Islam and the West
102
Key reading
104
7 Political communication
Development of the mass media
106
The media: contemporary trends
108
The media in established democracies
112
The media in new democracies
115
Public opinion
116
The media in authoritarian states
119
Key reading
121
8 Political participation
Participation in established democracies
122
Participation in new democracies
124
Social movements
127
Participation in authoritarian states
131
Political violence and terror
134
Revolution
136
Key reading
141
PART III Linking society and
government
9 Elections and voters
Scope and franchise
Electoral systems: legislatures
146
Electoral systems: presidents
154
Contents
Voting behaviour
156
Turnout
159
Referendums
160
Elections in new democracies
163
Elections in authoritarian states
164
Key reading
165
10 Interest groups
Classifying interest groups
167
Channels of access
169
Iron triangles and issue networks
172
Conditions of influence
175
Pluralism and corporatism
177
Interest groups in new democracies
181
Interest groups in authoritarian states
182
Key reading
184
11 Political parties
Party organization
186
Selecting candidates and leaders
189
Membership and finance
191
The social base
193
Party systems
194
Parties in new democracies
200
Parties in authoritarian states
201
Key reading
205
PART IV Government and policy
12 Constitutions and the legal framework
Constitutions
210
Judicial review and constitutional courts
212
Judicial activism, independence and
recruitment
216
Administrative law
221
Law in new democracies
223
Law in authoritarian states
224
International law
225
Key reading
227
13 Federal, unitary and local government
Federalism
228
Federal-state relations
231
Assessing federalism
235
Unitary government
236
Local government
239
Subnational government in new
democracies
244
Subnational government in authoritarian
states
245
Key reading
246
14 Legislatures
Structure
248
Functions
252
Recruitment
259
Legislatures in new democracies
263
Legislatures in authoritarian states
264
Key reading
267
15 The political executive
Presidential government
268
Parliamentary government
274
Semi-presidential government
281
The executive in new democracies
284
The executive in authoritarian states
285
Key reading
289
16 The bureaucracy
Evolution
291
Recruitment
292
Organization
293
Accountability
299
New public management
301
Bureaucracy in new democracies
303
Bureaucracy in authoritarian states
304
Key reading
307
17 The policy process
Stages of the policy process
309
Public policy in established democracies
315
Public policy in new democracies
319
Public policy in authoritarian states
322
Key reading
324
Appendix: list of boxes
325
References
326
Index
348
CONTENTS vii
viii
Maps
Map of the world
xii
4.1 Post-communist Eastern Europe and
Central Asia
55
4.2 Asia and the Middle East
65
10.1 The European Union
173
Tables
3.1 The British electorate as a percentage
of the adult population, 1831–1931
42
4.1 Post-communist states in Eastern
Europe and the former Soviet Union
54
4.2 Islam and democracy, 2001
62
6.1 Confidence in political institutions,
2001
92
7.1 The development of communication
media
107
7.2 Countries in which a majority of
people use the internet, 2002/03
109
7.3 Time taken for new media to reach
50 million households in the USA
111
7.4 Countries ranked by press freedom,
2001/02
116
8.1 Female representation in national
legislatures, 1950s–2000s
125
8.2 The ten larger demonstrations against
the Iraq War, by city, 15–16 February
2003
130
8.3 World Trade Center fatalities by
nationality, September 11, 2001
135
8.4 The ten most lethal governments,
1900–87
136
9.1 The Canadian elections of 1993 and
2000
150
9.2 Explicit thresholds of representation in
some PR systems
152
9.3 How the additional member system
works: Germany, 2002
153
9.4 Declining turnout at national elections,
1950s–1990s
159
9.5 Turnout in some countries with
compulsory voting
161
11.1 Falling party membership in some
European democracies, 1960–99
192
13.1 Some federations in established
democracies
230
13.2 Subnational government in unitary
states: some European examples
238
13.3 Average population of elected local
authorities in some European
democracies
241
14.1 Selection to the upper chamber in
some established democracies
250
14.2 Average length of service in national
parliaments
263
16.1 The structure of Germany’s Ministry
of Economics and Labour
296
17.1 Introduction of social insurance to
some democracies
316
17.2 Case-by-case privatization in the
United Kingdom, 1980s
319
Figures
1.1 Number of states belonging to the
United Nations, 1949–2002
8
2.1 Number of intergovernmental
organizations, 1909–97
26
3.1 The direct democracy of ancient Athens 37
3.2 Liberal democracy: the separation of
powers in the United States
41
4.1 The ending of military rule in Latin
America
60
5.1 Easton’s model of the political system
77
5.2 Population and assembly size
83
6.1 Almond and Verba’s theory of the
civic culture
90
6.2 Americans’ trust in the ‘government in
Washington’, 1964–2002
91
6.3 How elite political culture affects
political stability
99
6.4 Political learning and participation
across the life cycle
101
7.1 The transmission model of political
communication
105
List of illustrative material
8.1 Patterns of participation in democracies 123
8.2 The J-curve theory of revolutions
138
9.1 Methods for selecting presidents
155
10.1 A peak association: Britain’s CBI
169
10.2 Channels of interest group influence
169
10.3 Iron triangles: how subgovernments
operated in the USA
174
11.1 A bell-shaped distribution: parties
converge at the centre
196
11.2 Organization of the Chinese
Communist Party
204
12.1 Establishing constitutional courts in
Western Europe
215
12.2 Levels of judicial activism in selected
democracies
218
12.3 Administrative courts in France
222
14.1 Population and assembly size
248
14.2 Typical steps in making a law
256
15.1 Presidential government
269
15.2 Parliamentary government
274
15.3 Formateurs and coalition governments
277
15.4 Semi-presidential government
282
15.5 Typical executive structure in
communist states
287
16.1 Delimiting the bureaucracy
290
16.2 Founding of cabinet-level departments
in the USA
294
17.1 Stages of the policy process
309
Debates
State sovereignty or humanitarian
intervention?
31
‘Asian democracy’
48
Authoritarian rule as a recipe for economic
development
57
The political significance of the internet
111
Bowling alone
126
Compulsory voting
161
Is the USA a pluralist political system?
179
Parties as vote-maximizers
197
A political role for the judiciary
219
A federal Europe?
237
The decline of legislatures?
265
Presidential government for a new
democracy
273
A representative bureaucracy?
295
Profiles
The world
24
Mexico
45
Nigeria
61
Germany
94
Russia
128
The United States
147
The European Union
176
Italy
198
South Africa
213
Canada
232
United Kingdom
261
France
283
Japan
305
50 years of
The European Union
29
The European Court of Justice
217
The European Parliament
255
Boxes
A full list of boxes is provided in the Appendix.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL ix
This edition retains the purpose of its predeces-
sors: to provide a wide-ranging, contemporary and
clearly written introductory text for courses in
comparative politics, and for other introductory
courses in politics and political science. We have
retained the framework and chapter division used
in the previous edition but we have added 14 new
sections and subsections addressing current devel-
opments in the subject and the literature. We have
also rewritten many existing sections and revised
the entire book to provide more recent examples
and references; to enhance clarity; and to take
account of suggestions from readers and our own
evolving appreciation of the subject matter.
It might be helpful to outline the thinking
behind the new sections. In Part I, we have added
‘Nations and states’ to the opening chapter,
seeking to distinguish more sharply between two
concepts that can no longer be presented as a
compound ‘nation-state’. We have restructured
Chapter 2 to present the state in a more historical
and global context, with new sections on ‘How
the state emerged’, ‘The Western state’ and ‘The
post-colonial state’. We hope the changes here
blend this chapter’s global themes more success-
fully with the book’s comparative approach, as
recommended by Haynes (2003). Chapter 3 on
authoritarian rule includes extended coverage of
contemporary authoritarian regimes with a par-
ticular focus (in the light of increased interest
since 9/11) on ‘The Arab and Muslim worlds’.
We have also added ‘China in transition’ not least
to show that authoritarianism is not just a feature
of Islamic societies. The material on China, in
this section and elsewhere, also reflects the
country’s growing importance in the world
economy.
In Part II, the chapter on political culture now
includes a section on ‘Political trust and social
capital’ as well as an introduction to cultural
aspects of the relationship between ‘Islam and the
West’. Within the political communication
chapter, we have extended the material on media
impact through ‘Reinforcement, agenda-setting
and framing’. And the participation chapter now
covers ‘Social movements’.
The decline in formal political participation in
contemporary democracies is an issue that inter-
ests students – and rightly so. This theme features
more significantly in Part III, with ‘Turnout’ and a
debate topic on compulsory voting added to the
chapter on elections and voters. Falling party
membership and its implications are carried
though to the updated chapter on parties which
now covers both ‘Party membership and finance’
and ‘Selecting candidates and leaders’.
We have also strengthened Part IV on the struc-
Preface
Chapter 1 Politics and government
Nations and states
Chapter 2 The state in a global context
How the state emerged
The Western state
The post-colonial state
Chapter 4 Authoritarian rule
The Arab and Muslim worlds
China in transition
Chapter 6 Political culture
Political trust and social capital
Islam and the West
Chapter 7 Political communication
Reinforcement,agenda-setting and framing
Chapter 8 Political participation
Social movements
Chapter 9 Elections and voters
Turnout
Chapter 11 Political parties
Selecting candidates and leaders
Party membership and finance
Chapter 15 The political executive
Presidential government:Brazil
BOX P.1
New sections and subsections in
this edition
x
tures of government, aware that what should be
the core of the book was in danger of sliding
towards its periphery. In particular, we have added
a subsection on presidentialism in Brazil to the
chapter on the executive, enabling us to broaden
the discussion of presidential government beyond
the United States. Our classroom experience is
that student interest in President Lula da Silva can
be carried though to a broader appreciation of the
diversity in presidential systems. To reflect recent
research on the parliamentary executive, we have
also rewritten ‘Minority and coalition govern-
ment’.
We continue in this edition to use as the orga-
nizing framework within each chapter a three-part
division of states into established democracies,
new democracies and authoritarian states (see
Boxes 3.1 and 4.1). Given that most new democ-
racies have now survived for a number of years, we
have in this edition placed our discussion of them
immediately after the section on established
democracies. This strikes us as a more intuitive
sequence.
We invite you to visit our website. It supports
this book specifically and your access to it is free
and unrestricted. A major new feature for this
edition is an entirely new chapter – only available
on the website – on comparative political
economy.
We would like to thank our publisher Steven
Kennedy and his reviewers for their constructive
advice; Keith Povey and Glynis Harris for their
copy-editing skills; and Tim Flower of Florida
International University for advising us on recent
changes to the decree powers of the Brazilian pres-
ident. We would also like to acknowledge a more
general debt to the thousands of political scientists
who provided the findings and insights on which
this edition, in particular, is based. Without their
effort, this book could not exist.
In all its manifestations, this book has now sold
well over 100,000 copies. We are grateful for the
support reflected in this figure and also for the
corrections and suggestions provided by the many
teachers and students around the world who use
the book. We continue to welcome all feedback,
not least because some errors of fact or interpreta-
tion are bound to have crept into this new edition.
Please contact Martin Harrop at
School of Geography, Politics and Sociology
University of Newcastle
Newcastle upon Tyne
England
NE1 7RU
e-mail
