Table Of ContentYanru Chen
Communication
Campaigns and
National Integration
in China’s Market
Economy Era
Reviving the National Soul
Communication Campaigns and National
Integration in China’s Market Economy Era
Yanru Chen
Communication Campaigns
and National Integration
in China’s Market
Economy Era
Reviving the National Soul
1 3
Yanru Chen
Xiamen University
Xiamen
China
ISBN 978-981-287-732-1 ISBN 978-981-287-733-8 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-733-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015947415
Springer Singapore Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London
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Contents
1 Introduction ................................................ 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................ 1
1.2 In Search of China’s National Soul: Is the Nation Falling Apart? ... 5
1.2.1 Ideological Schism—Is There an Identity Crisis? ......... 6
1.2.2 Party-State-Nation: Consequences
of Structural Differentiation .......................... 11
1.2.3 Historical Discontinuity—A Spiritual Vacuum ........... 13
1.2.4 Substantive Conflicts—Does the Nation
Seem Fair to All? .................................. 16
1.3 Reaching the Soul of the Nation: Empirical Justification
for Study ............................................... 17
References .................................................. 19
2 Theoretical Foundations of the Study ........................... 21
2.1 Literature Review ........................................ 21
2.1.1 Communication in National Development ............... 21
2.1.2 Mass Mobilisation and National Integration:
The Role of Communications ........................ 24
2.1.3 Mass Campaigns—an Old Topic, a New Perspective ...... 28
2.2 Theoretical Horizons of the Study ........................... 30
2.2.1 An Overview of Prospect ............................ 30
2.2.2 Further Elaboration on Theoretical Significance
of the Study ...................................... 33
References .................................................. 37
3 Empirical Approaches to the Study ............................. 39
3.1 Again, What Is This Study? ................................ 39
3.2 Approach to the Analysis .................................. 40
3.2.1 Why These Specific Cases? .......................... 40
v
vi Contents
3.2.2 Main Sources of Data ............................... 42
3.2.3 Basic Analytical Procedures .......................... 43
3.3 Possible Outcomes ....................................... 44
References .................................................. 44
4 A Nation in Action: Communication and China’s
Bid for Year 2000 Olympics ................................... 45
4.1 Introduction: A Moment of Experience of the Nation ............ 45
4.2 Analysis: From the Bid to a Collective Experience of the Nation ... 46
4.2.1 Nationalising a Wish for the Bid: The Media
as Articulator ..................................... 47
4.2.2 Declaring—Displaying National Will:
The Media as Facilitator ............................. 52
4.2.3 Demonstrating National Work: The Media as an
Integrating Interpreter ............................... 58
4.2.4 Final Presentation of Wish—Will—Work:
The Nation Experienced as One ....................... 65
4.2.5 Re-affirming National Strength and Redefining
National Mission .................................. 72
4.3 Conclusion ............................................. 77
References .................................................. 79
5 Beyond the Planned Campaign: Construction of the “Nation”
in the Bid for Olympics ....................................... 83
5.1 Awareness—Activation–Action: Constructing a “Nation” ........ 83
5.1.1 Spreading Awareness, Stimulating
Participation—The Bid Links the Nation ................ 84
5.1.2 Activating Awareness of the Bid: Relating
the Individual to the Nation .......................... 86
5.1.3 Action in Support of the Bid: Mass Participation
in the Nation ...................................... 88
5.1.4 Aligning All the Chinese: Projecting All-inclusiveness
of the Nation ...................................... 94
5.2 “The Whole China Is Mobilised”—Featured in Foreign Eyes ...... 97
5.2.1 IOC’s Appreciation of Beijing’s Bid Report ............. 97
5.2.2 IOC Members’ Quoted Impression of Beijing/China ....... 97
5.2.3 Reporting on the Other Bidding Cities: Beijing
Is Strong! ........................................ 98
5.2.4 International Expressions of Support—Integrated
into National Strength .............................. 100
5.2.5 Covering Objections to Beijing: National
Will Re-affirmed ................................... 101
Contents vii
5.3 Conclusions ............................................ 102
5.3.1 Defining the Nation: The Bid as a Process
of National Integration .............................. 102
5.3.2 Idealism—Pragmatism–Idealism: Metamorphosis
of Promotional Thrust in Relation to the Nation .......... 103
5.3.3 The Media’s Integrating Framework for Reporting
and Interpretation .................................. 104
References .................................................. 105
6 In Memory of Mao: Re-making a Nation Maker .................. 109
6.1 Introduction ............................................ 109
6.1.1 The Emergence of Mao Craze in the 1990s .............. 110
6.2 The Commemoration: Integrating Straying Sentiments
Under One Head ......................................... 112
6.2.1 Re-placing Mao’s Ideologies—Official Line:
Continuity from Mao to Deng ........................ 113
6.2.2 Re-interpreting Mao’s Ideologies—Academic Line
Integrated with Party Line ........................... 119
6.2.3 Re-enacting Mao’s Personal Image: Mao
and His People as One .............................. 121
6.2.4 Mass Participation ................................. 126
6.3 Conclusions: Integrating Mao into Post-Mao China ............. 127
6.3.1 A Non-campaign Campaign: Notes on the Process ........ 127
6.3.2 Levels of Integration Manifest in the Process ............ 127
6.3.3 The Campaign and the Identity—Strength—Mission
of the Nation ...................................... 129
References .................................................. 130
7 Revealing the National Soul: 50th Anniversary of Victory
Over Japanese Invasion ...................................... 133
7.1 Introduction: A Fully Planned Case .......................... 133
7.2 The Analysis: History as Resources for National Integration ...... 135
7.3 Re-enactment of History: A Portrait of Collective Resistance ...... 137
7.3.1 Telling the Story: And Telling You How to Read It ........ 137
7.3.2 Dramatising History ................................ 140
7.3.3 Displaying History ................................. 141
7.4 Interpretation of History: How to Place the Actors in the Portrait ... 143
7.5 Abstraction of Patriotic Theme from History: Interaction
Between the People and the “Nation” ........................ 146
7.6 Direction for the Campaign: Towards a Guided Conception
of the Nation ............................................ 148
7.6.1 Official Directives ................................. 148
7.6.2 Media Editorials as Directives for Education ............. 152
viii Contents
7.7 Sublimation: The Moments Glorified—Reaching the Soul
of the Nation ............................................ 154
7.8 Immortalisation: Preserving References to the National Soul ...... 156
7.8.1 Mass Participation in Creating National Memory ......... 156
7.8.2 Cast in Stone: Physical Concentration of National Memory ... 158
7.8.3 Into Personal Memory: Knowledge Contests ............. 158
7.9 Conclusions ............................................ 159
References .................................................. 162
8 Conclusions ................................................ 165
8.1 Changing Environment of Campaigns ........................ 165
8.2 Comparative Analysis of Mechanisms of Campaigns ............ 169
8.2.1 National Time and National Space: Grounded Concepts .... 171
8.3 Campaigns and the Construction of “Nation” .................. 173
8.4 National Integration—Concertedness; Continuity; Compatibility ... 176
8.5 Role of the Media in the Campaigns ......................... 179
8.6 “Communications and National Integration” Revisited ........... 182
References .................................................. 189
9 Revelations from Recent Campaigns ............................ 191
9.1 A Campaign that Started After Its Conclusion:
Bid for Year 2008 Olympics ................................ 192
9.1.1 The Bidding Campaign Became a Celebration Campaign ... 194
9.1.2 Comparing the Bid for Year 2000 Olympics
and Bid for Year 2008 Olympics ...................... 200
9.2 Demonstrating National Strength: 50th Anniversary of the PRC ... 203
9.3 Strengthening the Party: Celebrating CCP’s 80th Anniversary ..... 205
9.4 Calls for National Unity and Stability: Three Campaigns
Against Negative Forces (1999–) ............................ 209
9.4.1 Harnessing National Emotions: Campaign Against
U.S. Hegemony ................................... 210
9.4.2 Promoting National Integration: Campaign Against
“Two Nations Theory” .............................. 213
9.4.3 Uniting All Against One Evil: Campaign
Against Falun Gong Cult ............................ 215
9.5 All People of One Heart: Campaign Against the Flood in 1998 .... 219
9.6 Revelations on Propaganda Techniques from the Campaigns ...... 225
9.7 Concluding Remarks ..................................... 229
References .................................................. 232
Bibliography .................................................. 235
List of Tables
Table 4.1 People’s Daily special forum on Olympics .................. 51
Table 4.2 Cable messages of support from mass organisations .......... 71
Table 4.3 Chinese State Leaders’ direct messages in support of Beijing ... 79
Table 5.1 Reports of support for Beijing’s bid from Hong Kong Chinese ... 95
Table 5.2 Reports of support from Chinese in regions
other than Hong Kong .................................. 95
Table 5.3 Media reports on IOC members’ visits to Beijing ............. 99
Table 5.4 Themes of media reports on other bidding cities ............. 100
Table 6.1 Official forums commemorating Mao ...................... 115
Table 7.1 Theoretical abstractions of patriotism ...................... 147
Table 7.2 Directives for patriotic education from leaders and experts ..... 149
Table 8.1 A summary comparison of three campaigns ................. 173
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction
To any nation in the world, patriotism is a banner that never
fades; to any era in history, patriotism is a theme that never
vanishes; to any people, patriotism is a torch that never fails
to bring their hearts together. …Patriotism is the spiritual
propeller for building a strong, socialist China.
Yin Yungong, “Patriotism”, in Guangming Daily,
3 January 1993
1.1 Introduction
This study is the outcome of long-term systematic observation of China’s national
events, combined with reflections on the possible effect (or lack of it) of such
events which might create a spiritual bond holding the nation together for the
purpose of development. Specifically, the chunk of this study consists of analy-
ses of three national campaigns: bid for year 2000 Olympics, commemoration of
Chairman Mao’s 100th anniversary, and celebration of the 50th anniversary of
China’s victory over Japanese invasion. The main concern is whether and how
these campaigns figured in the process of spiritually integrating the nation, as well
as the role of the media in the processes.
In the larger social context, impetuous forces of a market economy have been
pulling at individuals and institutions and tearing at the social and cultural fab-
ric in all directions besides that of striving for the national good (Watson 1992).
Politically, this trend has not been explicitly acknowledged by the national leaders,
who albeit revealed their concern with the challenge in their public emphasis on
the urge to forge a stronger cohesive force and cultivate “socialist” and “traditional
Chinese” virtues which value collectivism above pursuit of individual interests.
Former Premier Li Peng’s Report on Government Work (Li 1993) included such
evidence.
© Springer Science+Business Media Singapore 2016 1
Y. Chen, Communication Campaigns and National Integration in China’s Market
Economy Era, DOI 10.1007/978-981-287-733-8_1
