Table Of ContentOECD Reviews of Innovation Policy
COlOmbIa
Contents
Executive summary OECD Reviews of Innovation Policy
Chapter 1. Overall assessment and recommendations
Chapter 2. Macroeconomic performance, framework conditions and innovation performance in Colombia
COlOmbIa
Chapter 3. Innovation actors in Colombia
Chapter 4. The role of government
www.oecd.org/sti/innovation/reviews
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OECD Reviews
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FOREWORD –
Foreword
The OECD Review of Colombia’s Innovation Policy is part of a series of OECD
country reviews of innovation policy.* It was requested by the Colombian authorities,
represented by the National Planning Department (DNP) and was carried out by the
OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and Industry (DSTI) under the auspices of
the Committee for Scientific and Technological Policy (CSTP). The review draws on the
results of a series of interviews with major stakeholders of Colombia’s innovation system
and on a background report commissioned by the Colombian authorities. This back-
ground report was prepared by Lisbeth Fog, Monica Salazar, Carlos Nupia and Rafael
Vesga. It contains a broad range of information that is drawn upon in this report.
This report was drafted by Erik Arnold (consultant to the OECD; Director,
Technopolis Group, United Kingdom, and professor, University of Twente, the
Netherlands), Martin Bell (consultant to the OECD; professor emeritus, SPRU, United
Kingdom), Dimitrios Pontikakis (Country Studies and Outlook Division [CSO], DSTI,
OECD), with contributions from Caroline Paunov (CSO, DSTI, OECD) and Verena
Weber (at the time Information, Communications and Consumer Policy Division [ICCP],
DSTI, OECD) under the supervision of and with contributions from Gernot
Hutschenreiter (Head, Country Innovation Policy Reviews, CSO, DSTI, OECD).
Fernando Galindo-Rueda, Vladimir Lopez-Bassols and Pedro Herrera Gimenez (all
Economic Analysis and Statistics Division [EAS], DSTI, OECD) as well as Andrés
Barreneche (CSO, DSTI, OECD) provided valuable contributions. Catherine Moreddu
(TAD/PTA, OECD) and her team provided useful input on aspects of agricultural
innovation. Diego Chavarro (SPRU, United Kingdom) and Lihan Wei (at the time CSO,
DSTI, OECD) provided statistical support.
The purpose of this review is to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the key
elements, relationships and dynamics that drive the Colombian innovation system and the
opportunities to enhance it through government policy. More specifically, the review will:
• provide an independent and comparative assessment of the overall performance of
Colombia’s National Innovation System (NIS).
• recommend where improvements can be made within the system.
• formulate recommendations on how government policies can contribute to such
improvements, drawing on the experience of other OECD countries and evidence on
innovation processes, systems and policies.
The review is intended to be relevant to a wide range of stakeholders in Colombia,
including government officials, entrepreneurs and researchers as well as the general public.
It also aims to use the OECD as a communication platform to provide an accessible and
comprehensive presentation of Colombian innovation to a global audience. The Overall
* www.oecd.org/sti/innovation/reviews
OECD REVIEWS OF INNOVATION POLICY: COLOMBIA © OECD 2014
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– FOREWORD
Assessment and Recommendations of the review were presented for a peer review to the
Working Party for Innovation and Technology Policy (TIP) of the CSTP in June 2013 and
launched in Colombia by OECD Secretary-General Angel Gurría in October 2013.
The review owes much to the support and co-operation of Colombian government
officials, in particular Javier Antonio Villarreal Villaquiran followed by Rafael Puyana
Martinez-Villalba (DNP and delegate to the CSTP), Sara Isabel Araujo Santos (Colciencias
and delegate to the CSTP) as well as Johana Moreno Kuratomi (Second Secretary of
Foreign Affairs, Embassy of Colombia to France) in their respective capacities, all of whom
provided invaluable support at all stages of the review process. Libardo Andres Gutierrez
Mengual, Ricardo Laverde and Ivan Clemente Montenegro Trujillo (all Colciencias) and
Edwin Javier Ramirez (DNP) provided information, helped with the interviews during the
fact-finding mission in Colombia, and supported the OECD review team throughout this
process. The report has benefited from comments and additional information received from
numerous stakeholders in Colombia, delegates of the CSTP and participants in the TIP peer
review – in particular Fernando Merida-Martins (Ministry of Economic Affairs and
Competitiveness, Spain) and Christopher Palmberg (TEKES, Finland) who acted as peer
reviewers – and distinguished experts in the field.
OECD REVIEWS OF INNOVATION POLICY: COLOMBIA © OECD 2014
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TABLE OF CONTENTS –
Table of contents
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 1. Overall assessment and recommendations ............................................................................... 13
Chapter 1 available in French at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933077198
Chapter 1 available in Spanish at http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933077217
1.1. Achievements and challenges ................................................................................................................ 14
1.2. A brief diagnosis of the Colombian innovation system ......................................................................... 16
1.3. Scope for improving and further developing innovation policy ............................................................ 22
1.4. Strategic tasks ........................................................................................................................................ 23
1.5. Guiding principles ................................................................................................................................. 25
1.6. Recommendations ................................................................................................................................. 27
References .................................................................................................................................................... 50
Chapter 2. Macroeconomic performance, framework conditions and innovation performance
in Colombia ..................................................................................................................................................... 51
2.1. Macroeconomic performance and productivity growth ........................................................................ 52
2.2. International trade, foreign direct investment and structural change ..................................................... 57
2.3. Framework conditions for innovation ................................................................................................... 64
2.4. Innovation performance......................................................................................................................... 69
2.5. Reorienting long-term paths of economic development: The role of innovation .................................. 77
Notes............................................................................................................................................................. 78
References .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 3. Innovation actors in Colombia ................................................................................................... 81
3.1. Innovation systems and innovation actors ............................................................................................. 81
3.2. Business enterprises .............................................................................................................................. 85
3.3. Agriculture............................................................................................................................................. 98
3.4. The ICT sector ..................................................................................................................................... 104
3.5. Higher education institutions ............................................................................................................... 105
3.6. Public research institutes ..................................................................................................................... 115
3.7. Human resources for science, technology and innovation .................................................................. 121
Notes........................................................................................................................................................... 134
References .................................................................................................................................................. 137
Chapter 4. The role of government............................................................................................................. 143
4.1. Governance and the national innovation system ................................................................................. 144
4.2. The evolution of science, technology and innovation policy .............................................................. 152
4.3. Royalty funding for science, technology and innovation: scale, regional dimension and impact ....... 163
4.4. Main policy actors ............................................................................................................................... 172
4.5. Public governance: Agenda setting, co-ordination and evaluation ...................................................... 181
4.6. Supporting business R&D and innovation .......................................................................................... 189
4.7. Facilitating access to risk financing..................................................................................................... 198
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4.8. Promoting skills for innovation ........................................................................................................... 199
4.9. Spurring market demand for innovation .............................................................................................. 207
4.10. Defining the Internet and ICT sector as a platform for innovation ................................................... 209
4.11. Stimulating social innovation and re-balancing innovation policy ................................................... 218
4.12. Fostering excellence, relevance and critical mass in public-sector research ..................................... 228
4.13. Building and exploiting international knowledge linkages ............................................................... 231
4.14. A summary note on government institutions ..................................................................................... 233
Notes........................................................................................................................................................... 236
References .................................................................................................................................................. 238
Figures
Figure 2.1. Income and productivity levels ................................................................................................... 53
Figure 2.2. Evolution of labour productivity, 1990-2011 ............................................................................. 54
Figure 2.3. Real GDP growth rate ................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 2.4. Colombian inequality in international perspective ..................................................................... 57
Figure 2.5. Trade openness ........................................................................................................................... 58
Figure 2.6. FDI stocks ................................................................................................................................... 60
Figure 2.7. FDI inflows ................................................................................................................................. 61
Figure 2.8. R&D intensity, 2011 level and average annual growth rate 2003-11, selected countries ........... 70
Figure 2.9. R&D expenditure by source of financing, as a percentage of national total, 2011 or
nearest available year .................................................................................................................. 72
Figure 2.10. BERD intensity, selected countries, 2002 and 2011, or nearest available years ........................ 73
Figure 2.11. Scientific publications per million population, 2002 and 2012 .................................................. 74
Figure 2.12. International co-authorship and citation impact ......................................................................... 75
Figure 2.13. PCT patent applications per million population, 2000 and 2010 ................................................ 76
Figure 3.1. A national innovation system heuristic ....................................................................................... 82
Figure 3.2. Ratio of business R&D performance to R&D funding, selected countries, 2010 ....................... 89
Figure 3.3. The organisation framework of the national subsystem of agricultural technical
assistance .................................................................................................................................. 101
Figure 3.4. The Colombian ICT sector: Share of telecommunications and IT revenues ............................ 104
Figure 3.5. Number of recognised research groups, 2002-11 ..................................................................... 107
Figure 3.6. Number of active researchers, 2002-11 .................................................................................... 108
Figure 3.7. World of Science publications, Colombia and the National University, 2000-10 .................... 111
Figure 3.8. National university co-publications 2010-11, by country ......................................................... 111
Figure 3.9. Research project funding, University of the Andes, 2000-11 ................................................... 114
Figure 3.10. RTDCs’ sources of funding for STI activities, million COP of 2011 ....................................... 116
Figure 3.11 Number of RTDCs offering various services (rated by the centres as “very important”) ........ 117
Figure 3.12 Number of RTDCs by area of research focus ........................................................................... 117
Figure 3.13 VTT’s innovation model........................................................................................................... 120
Figure 3.14 Occupational versus educational pyramid in Colombia ........................................................... 125
Figure 3.15. Number of graduates from higher education institutions by level, 2002-11............................. 127
Figure 3.16. Graduates from national master’s programmes by subject, OECD classification .................... 128
Figure 3.17. Proportion of Colombian PhD graduates receiving their degree from a Colombian
university, 2002-11 ................................................................................................................... 131
Figure 3.18. Number of PhDs graduating from Colombian universities, 2002-11 ....................................... 131
Figure 3.19. Total master and doctoral scholarships and loans, 2002-11 ..................................................... 133
Figure 4.1. Generic organisational structure for research and innovation policy governance .................... 148
Figure 4.2. Share of total royalties allocated to individual regions before and after the reform ................. 164
Figure 4.3. Colciencias’ initial and final budget appropriations, 1981-2008 .............................................. 173
Figure 4.4. Colciencias’ budget by type of expenditure, 2002-12 (in constant 2011 COP) ........................ 175
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TABLE OF CONTENTS –
Figure 4.5. Committee structures of the state National System of Science, Technology and
Innovation and the state National System of Competitiveness and Innovation ........................ 182
Figure 4.6. Roles of state entities in the state National System of Science, Technology and
Innovation ................................................................................................................................. 183
Figure 4.7. Enterprise-based training and learning in the innovation system ............................................. 201
Figure 4.8. Overview of the main Vive Digital programmes ...................................................................... 209
Figure 4.9. Delivered terminals (PCs, laptops, tablets), Computers for Education Programme ................. 211
Figure 4.10. Modules of the FITI Framework .............................................................................................. 212
Figure 4.11. Overview of hosting countries of .co sites ................................................................................ 218
Figure 4.12. A stylised variable geometry for social innovation policy development .................................. 224
Figure 4.13. Developments in the Research Council of Norway’s organisational structure ......................... 230
Figure 4.14 Distribution of Colombian higher education students studying abroad .................................... 232
Tables
Table 1.1. SWOT analysis ........................................................................................................................... 49
Table 2.1. Sources of output per worker growth composition ..................................................................... 54
Table 2.2. High-technology exports as a share of total exports ................................................................... 59
Table 2.3. Change in the sector composition of manufacturing, 2001-10 ................................................... 62
Table 2.4. ECLAC technology-based framework of sector categories ........................................................ 63
Table 2.5. Change in the sectoral composition of manufacturing production by “technological”
categories .................................................................................................................................... 64
Table 2.6. Doing Business rankings, 2014 .................................................................................................. 65
Table 2.7. Colombia’s gross domestic expenditure on R&D and science and technological activities ...... 69
Table 2.8. Expenditure on science, technology and innovation activities (STIA) ....................................... 71
Table 3.1. The main activities of scientists and engineers in the United States, 2003................................. 84
Table 3.2 Colombia’s business enterprise R&D expenditure by firm size, 2008 ....................................... 88
Table 3.3. Funding of business enterprise R&D in Colombia, 2007-11 ...................................................... 89
Table 3.4. EDIT innovation survey categories ............................................................................................ 91
Table 3.5. Distribution of manufacturing firms by “innovativeness” and technological categories,
2009-10 ....................................................................................................................................... 93
Table 3.6. Inputs for innovation in manufacturing by technological categories .......................................... 94
Table 3.7. Innovation-related links between business enterprises and other system actors: Colombia
(2009-10) and Europe (EU27, 2002-04) ..................................................................................... 95
Table 3.8. Sources of ideas for innovation considered important by manufacturing enterprises ................ 96
Table 3.9. The scale of agricultural research in Colombia by type of R&D-performing organisation,
2006 .......................................................................................................................................... 103
Table 3.10. The scale and composition of agricultural R&D expenditure by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Rural Development, 2003-10 ......................................................................... 103
Table 3.11. Higher education institutions by type of institution .................................................................. 106
Table 3.12. Students and staff in different types of higher education institution, 2011 .............................. 106
Table 3.13. Research groups and researchers in various kinds of institution, 2011 .................................... 109
Table 3.14. Active research groups and researchers by OECD discipline groups, 2011 ............................. 109
Table 3.15 Articles with Colombian authors listed in the Web of Science, 2000-11 ................................. 110
Table 3.16. Countries with which the University of the Andes has over 100 co-authorships, 2000-11 ...... 112
Table 3.17. External funding of active research projects in the National University by national
sources, 2011 ............................................................................................................................ 113
Table 3.18. Funding sources of higher education institutions ..................................................................... 115
Table 3.19. RTDCs: Expenditure in STI activities by source of funding, million COP of 2011 ................ 116
Table 3.20. Educational stages of young people aged 15-24 ....................................................................... 123
Table 3.21. Tuition fees, per level of qualification ...................................................................................... 123
Table 3.22. Tertiary student enrolments, 2002-10 ....................................................................................... 124
Table 3.23. Students and staff per type, 2011 .............................................................................................. 125
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Table 3.24. Undergraduate enrolments, 2010 and 2014 targets................................................................... 126
Table 3.25. Undergraduate enrolment of people aged 17-21 in Latin America, 2009................................. 126
Table 3.26. Graduates from Colombian higher education institutions by level of education, 2002-11 ....... 127
Table 3.27. Numbers of master’s and PhD graduates per million inhabitants, 2010 ................................... 130
Table 3.28. PhD graduates from Colombian and foreign universities by year, 2002-11 ............................. 130
Table 3.29 No of graduate schools and PhD graduates by broad discipline, 2011 ..................................... 132
Table 3.30. Doctoral scholarships and loans by funding institution, 2002-11 ............................................. 132
Table 3.31. Entry-level monthly salary and formal employment, per level of qualification ....................... 133
Table 4.1. Examples of the institutionalisation of research and innovation funding roles ........................ 151
Table 4.2. Key events in the history of Colombian research and innovation policy, 1963-2008 .............. 152
Table 4.3. Thematic focus of successive innovation policy documents .................................................... 157
Table 4.4. Royalty funding and previous expenditure on STI activities (STA) ........................................ 165
Table 4.5. Colombian STA royalty funding in a comparative context ...................................................... 166
Table 4.6. Criteria for assessing STI Fund proposals ................................................................................ 167
Table 4.7. Distribution of research groups across regions, 2011 ............................................................... 169
Table 4.8. Investments in R&D and innovation activities, by department, 2010-12 ................................. 171
Table 4.9. Colciencias funding, per funding mechanisms (in millions of COP, constant prices,
2008) ......................................................................................................................................... 174
Table 4.10. Percentage of companies using training programmes, 2008 .................................................... 177
Table 4.11. Percentage of firms rating training instruments as inadequate ................................................. 177
Table 4.12. SENA enrolment by year and skill category............................................................................. 178
Table 4.13. Overview of allocated funds for selected Vive Digital programmes in 2012 ........................... 180
Table 4.14. Contract research income of the University of the Andes, 2001-11 (real 2011 COP) .............. 195
Table 4.15. University of the Andes: Colombian sources of research income, 2001-11, in constant
2011 COP millions ................................................................................................................... 196
Table 4.16. Top 20 external research funders at the University of the Andes ............................................. 196
Table 4.17. Industrial partners of the University of Antioch ....................................................................... 197
Table 4.18. Recognised research groups by discipline, 2011 ...................................................................... 228
Boxes
Box 3.1. Consortia of research groups in the university sector ............................................................... 110
Box 4.1. The new royalty system ............................................................................................................ 164
Box 4.2. Innovation funding in Norway .................................................................................................. 179
Box 4.3 Desiderata for research and innovation councils ...................................................................... 186
Box 4.4. Understanding competence centres .......................................................................................... 192
Box 4.5. Stockholm School of Entrepreneurship .................................................................................... 200
Box 4.6. Bank-funded investment in innovation capabilities .................................................................. 204
Box 4.7. Examples of social innovation in Colombia ............................................................................. 220
Box 4.8. What is social innovation? – An OECD perspective ................................................................ 221
Box 4.9. Possible impacts of social innovation in agriculture: impact pathways from participatory
and empowerment/learning modes of innovation ..................................................................... 226
OECD REVIEWS OF INNOVATION POLICY: COLOMBIA © OECD 2014
