Table Of ContentCOASTAL HABITAT CONSERVATION
COASTAL
HABITAT
CONSERVATION
New Perspectives and Sustainable
Development
of Biodiversity in the Anthropocene
Edited by
Free Espinosa
Laboratorio de Biología Marina, Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
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Dedication
Dedicated to the loving memory of our friend and colleague Alejandro Fernández Romero (1994–2020), who made
significant contributions to marine research within the Marine Biology Laboratory at the University of Seville during
the period of his PhD study.
Contributors
María del Carmen Alonso Universidad de Málaga, Souha El Asmi Specially Protected Areas Regional Activity
Instituto de Biotecnología y Desarrollo Azul, IBYDA, Centre (SPA/RAC), Boulevard du Leader Yasser Arafat,
Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Tunis Cedex, Tunisia
Málaga, Spain Najib El Ouamari National Institute of Fisheries Research
Stefano Ambroso Department of Marine Biology and (INRH), Nador, Morocco
Oceanography, Institut de Ciéncies del Mar, Barcelona, Free Espinosa Laboratorio de Biología Marina,
Spain Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología,
Pablo Arechavala-Lopez Mediterranean Institute of Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
Advanced Studies (IMEDEA-CSIC), Esporles, Mallorca, Darren Fa Natural Sciences and Environment Research Hub,
Spain University of Gibraltar, Europa Point Campus, Gibraltar
Gail V. Ashton Smithsonian Environmental Research Jasmine Ferrario Department of Earth and Environmental
Center, Tiburon, CA, United States Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Hocein Bazairi Mohammed V University in Rabat, Faculty Sebastien Fonbonne Ecocean, Montpellier, France
of Sciences, Department of Biology, Rabat, Morocco;
Juan García-de-Lomas I + D Group on Structure and Dynamics
Natural Sciences and Environment Research Hub,
of Aquatic Ecosystems, University of Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain
University of Gibraltar, Europa Point Campus, Gibraltar
José Carlos García-Gómez Laboratorio de Biología
Julia Béjar Universidad de Málaga, Instituto de
Marina, Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología,
Biotecnología y Desarrollo Azul, IBYDA, Departamento
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
de Biología Celular, Genética y Fisiología, Facultad de
María Leonor García-Gutiérrez HyT Association, Seville,
Ciencias, Málaga, Spain
Spain
Pierre Boissery Agence de l’Eau Rhône-Méditerranée-
Esther García-Rosado Universidad de Málaga,
Corse, Délégation de Marseille, Marseille, France
Instituto de Biotecnología y Desarrollo Azul, IBYDA,
Robert Brunet Institut Paul Ricard, Six Fours-Les-Plages,
Departamento de Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias,
France
Málaga, Spain
M. Pilar Cabezas CIBIO-InBIO, Centro de Investigação em
Rebecca Gentry Department of Geography, Florida State
Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do
University, Tallahassee, FL, United States
Porto, Vairão, Portugal
Vasilis Gerovasileiou Department of Environment,
Eva Cacabelos Hydrosphere—Environmental laboratory for
Faculty of Environment, Ionian University, Zakynthos;
the study of aquatic ecosystems, Vigo, Spain
Hellenic Centre for Marine Research (HCMR), Institute of
Ricardo Calado ECOMARE – Laboratory for Innovation Marine Biology, Biotechnology and Aquaculture (IMBBC),
and Sustainability of Marine Biological Resources & Heraklion, Greece
CESAM – Centre for Environmental and Marine Studies &
Ignacio Gestoso Smithsonian Environmental Research
Department of Biology, Campus Universitário de Santiago,
Center, Tiburon, CA, United States; MARE—Marine
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
and Environmental Sciences Centre/ARNET—Aquatic
João Canning-Clode MARE—Marine and Environmental Research Network, Regional Agency for the Development
Sciences Centre/ARNET—Aquatic Research Network, of Research, Technology and Innovation (ARDITI),
Regional Agency for the Development of Research, Funchal, Madeira Island, Portugal; Departamento de
Technology and Innovation (ARDITI), Funchal, Madeira Ecología, Facultad de Ciencias del Mar y Ambientales,
Island, Portugal; Smithsonian Environmental Research University of Cádiz, Cádiz, Spain
Center, Edgewater, MD, United States
Daniel Gómez-Gras Hawai‘i Institute of Marine Biology,
James T. Carlton Ocean and Coastal Studies Program, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Kaneohe, HI, United
Williams College-Mystic Seaport, Mystic, CT, United States States; Departament de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia
Awantha Dissanayake Natural Sciences and Environment i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Institut
Research Hub, University of Gibraltar, Europa Point de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBIO), Universitat de
Campus, Gibraltar Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
ix
x Contributors
Jordi Grinyó Department of Marine Biology and Patricia Moreno Universidad de Málaga, Instituto de
Oceanography, Institut de Ciéncies del Mar, Barcelona, Biotecnología y Desarrollo Azul, IBYDA, Departamento de
Spain Microbiología, Facultad de Ciencias, Málaga, Spain
Anaïs Gudefin Ecocean, Montpellier, France Natalie Muirhead-Davies Natural Sciences and
José Manuel Guerra-García Laboratorio de Biología Environment Research Hub, University of Gibraltar,
Marina, Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología, Europa Point Campus, Gibraltar
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Carlos Navarro-Barranco Laboratorio de Biología Marina,
Pablo Jiménez-Prada Laboratorio de Biología Marina, Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología,
Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Patricio Peñalver-Duque HyT Association, Seville, Spain
Gilles Lecaillon Ecocean, Montpellier, France Andrew Rhyne Biology and Marine Biology, Roger
Philippe Lenfant CEFREM, UMR 5110, Université de Williams University, Bristol, RI, United States
Perpignan Via Domitia, CNRS, Perpignan, France Macarena Ros Laboratorio de Biología Marina,
David León-Muez HyT Association; Departamento de Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología,
Biología Vegetal y Ecología, Universidad de Sevilla, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
Sevilla, Spain Gregory M. Ruiz Smithsonian Environmental Research
Atef Limam Specially Protected Areas Regional Activity Center, Edgewater, MD, United States
Centre (SPA/RAC), Boulevard du Leader Yasser Arafat, Andreu Santín Department of Marine Biology and
Tunis Cedex, Tunisia Oceanography, Institut de Ciéncies del Mar, Barcelona,
Manuel Manchado IFAPA Centro El Toruño, Junta de Spain; CIIMAR—Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and
Andalucía; Crecimiento Azul, Centro IFAPA El Toruño Environmental Research, University of Porto, Matosinhos,
Unidad Asociada al CSIC, El Puerto de Santa María, Portugal
Cádiz, Spain Tanja Šegvić-Bubić Institute of Oceanography and
Agnese Marchini Department of Earth and Environmental Fisheries, Split, Croatia
Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy Mohamed Selfati Laboratoire Santé et Environnement,
Elizabeth Marchio Center of Science and Industry (COSI), Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences Aïn Chock,
Columbus, OH, United States Hassan II University of Casablanca, Maarif, Casablanca,
Morocco
Gemma Martínez-Laiz Laboratorio de Biología Marina,
Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología, Juan Sempere-Valverde Laboratorio de Biología Marina,
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología,
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain
Inés Martínez-Pita Departamento de Sistemas Físicos,
Químicos y Naturales, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Alexis Terrón-Sigler Laboratorio de Biología Marina,
Sevilla, Spain Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad
de Sevilla; HyT Association, Seville, Spain
María Montseny Departament de Biologia Evolutiva,
Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Michael F. Tlusty School for the Environment, University
Institut de Recerca de la Biodiversitat (IRBIO), Universitat of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, MA, United States
de Barcelona, Barcelona; Departamento de Zoología, Stephen Warr Natural Sciences and Environment Research
Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain Hub, University of Gibraltar, Europa Point Campus, Gibraltar
C H A P T E R
1
Impacts, evolution, and changes of pressure
on marine ecosystems in recent times. Toward
new emerging and unforeseen impacts within a
changing world
Free Espinosaa and Hocein Bazairib,c
aLaboratorio de Biología Marina, Departamento de Zoología, Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Sevilla, Sevilla, Spain,
bMohammed V University in Rabat, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, Rabat, Morocco, cNatural Sciences and
Environment Research Hub, University of Gibraltar, Europa Point Campus, Gibraltar
1. Introduction
Marine realm has been traditionally a source of mystery, fear, knowledge, and associated with myths and super-
natural events. Even currently, many people feel themselves in such a way when facing the vast ocean in spite of the
information that we already have about the marine system. It is well understandable because the comprehension
about this domain is by far very lower than we have on terrestrial one. This fact has led that our knowledge and
consciousness about the environmental impacts that threaten the marine biodiversity and ocean ecosystems had not
been in the same level than for terrestrial zones. Moreover, marine biodiversity has been usually hidden from human
view by physical constraints, and it has limited our capacity to be aware about the real damage that human inter-
ventions have been affecting since coastal areas to open oceans. Unfortunately, humankind has perceived the sea as
a mere provisioner for food and a gigantic dump. In this context, it is urgent to develop a “sea ethic” that values the
oceans more than a simple provider (Dallmeyer, 2005).
The main factor underneath the environmental crisis that our planet is facing relies on the exponential popula-
tion growth in which our species became since the middle of the 20th century (Fig. 1.1). Unfortunately, this kind of
growth is expected to continue at least until the middle of the present century, and it will mean that a huge demand
on natural resources, predictable habitats destruction, and greenhouse gases intake will continue to increase with
the concomitant negative effects.
Nature dynamics are the result of multiple natural and man-made processes. However, humans are now recognized
as the main drivers of environmental change on Earth, and they are having a greater impact on the global environment
than ever before (Folke et al., 2021), with an outsized influence on global planetary processes (Zalasiewicz et al., 2017).
Human forces are unevenly distributed around the world. However, the rate at which human impacts are increas-
ing is of particular concern for the oceans (Halpern et al., 2019), especially in coastal areas where human activity
and population are concentrated (Bennett et al., 2019). Indeed, 87%–90% of the global ocean surface are affected by
humans (Jones et al., 2018). These impacts have resulted in many global environmental changes, thereby leading to
a loss of a global biodiversity.
The term “Holocene” has been used to design the postglacial epoch of the past 10–12,000 years since it was ad-
opted by the International Geological Congress in 1885 after Charles Lyell proposed for the first time in 1833 (Dalby,
2016). During Holocene, humankind emerged as a main force at global scale, driving ecological, morphological, and
1
C oastal Habitat Conservation. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-85613-3.00004-9 Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. New emerging and unforeseen impacts within a changing world
FIG. 1.1 World population growth during the period 1700–2019 and its projection for the end of 21st century.
geological changes, but the invention of the steam engine at the end of the 18th century led the industrial revolution and
then the effects of human influence were clearly noticeable in multiple ways (Crutzen & Stoermer, 2000). Therefore, to
emphasize the central role of humans in geology and ecology the term “Anthropocene” for the current geological ep-
och was proposed by Crutzen and Stoermer in 2000. This term links directly the burning of fossil fuels and greenhouse
gases emissions with the concomitant global climate change and the further eco-geological changes (Dalby, 2016).
This chapter gives an updated overview of the traditional forces of change in marine ecosystems as well as the
new emerging ones in the Anthropocene era. It also reviews the state of knowledge of their effects and the ways
toward marine conservation.
2. Traditional impacts on marine ecosystems: Past, present, and future
The most important human impacts on marine ecosystems have been identified consistently as overexploitation,
pollution, coastal destruction, biological invasions by NIS (nonindigenous species), and climate change (Jackson
et al., 2001; Probert, 2017 and references therein). Historical sequence of human disturbances was pointed out by
Jackson et al. (2001) indicating that fishing was the older human impact over the oceans (Fig. 1.2). Furthermore, this
impact could be reliably tracked down since more than 1000 years comparing archeological records with present
data on the mean body size of target species by fisheries. In fact, a reduction of more than 80% was detected in some
species such as Atlantic cod. Pollution would be the second impact in the timeline that appeared mostly after the
industrial revolution during the 19th century and became so intense through the 20th century indeed. The global
awareness about the damage inflicted by industrial and urban pollution in the marine ecosystems led to adopt sev-
eral international agreements in order to reduce pollution such as “MARPOL,” “The United Nations Convention
on the Law of the Sea,” “International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation,” or
