Coastal Engineering Manual

1720 Pages·44.05 MB·English

Coastal
Engineering
Manual
Contents
Part I.
I-1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................... I-1-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... I-1-i
I-1.1 Purpose and Scope ............................................................................................. I-1-1
I-1.2 Applicability .......................................................................................................... I-1-1
I-1.3 Definitions ............................................................................................................ I-1-1
a. Coastal ......................................................................................................... I-1-1
b. Coastal Engineering ..................................................................................... I-1-1
c. Coastal Science ........................................................................................... I-1-2
I-1.4 Bibliography ......................................................................................................... I-1-2
I-1.5 References .......................................................................................................... I-1-2
I-1.6 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... I-1-4
I-2. Coastal Diversity ................................................................................................................ I-2-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... I-2-i
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... I-2-ii
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... I-2-iii
I-2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... I-2-1
I-2.2 Coastal Areas ...................................................................................................... I-2-1
a. Atlantic North: Glaciated Coast .................................................................... I-2-1
b. Atlantic Central and South: Barrier and Drowned Valley Coasts .................. I-2-2
c. The Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico: Coral and Mangrove Coasts ..................... I-2-4
d. Gulf of Mexico East: Wetland Mangrove, and Barrier Coasts ...................... I-2-6
e. Gulf of Mexico West: Barrier Coast .............................................................. I-2-6
f. Pacific: Sea Cliffs and Terraced Coasts ....................................................... I-2-7
g. The Bering and Chukchi Seas: Arctic Coastal Plains and Barriers .............. I-2-8
h. The Beaufort Sea: Deltaic Coast .................................................................. I-2-9
i. Pacific: Volcanic Islands ............................................................................... I-2-11
j. Great Lakes of North America ...................................................................... I-2-13
I-2.3 Stability ................................................................................................................ I-2-14
I-2.4 Erosion ................................................................................................................ I-2-16
I-2.5 Solutions .............................................................................................................. I-2-16
I-2.6 References .......................................................................................................... I-2-24
I-2.7 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... I-2-26
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vi Contents
I-3. History of Coastal Engineering .......................................................................................... I-3-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... I-3-i
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... I-3-iii
I-3.1 Ancient World ...................................................................................................... I-3-1
I-3.2 Pre-roman Times ................................................................................................. I-3-1
I-3.3 Roman Times ...................................................................................................... I-3-3
I-3.4 Modern Age ......................................................................................................... I-3-4
I-3.5 Military and Civil Engineer Era ............................................................................ I-3-5
I-3.6 United States Army Corps of Engineers .............................................................. I-3-6
I-3.7 Coastal Engineering in the United States ............................................................ I-3-10
a. Nineteenth Century Projects ........................................................................ I-3-10
b. Nineteenth Century Coastal Engineering ..................................................... I-3-11
c. Early Coastal Development and Shore Protection ....................................... I-3-12
d. Early 20th Century Beach Development and the Engineering Advisory
Board on Coastal Erosion ............................................................................ I-3-13
e. American Shore and Beach Preservation Association ................................. I-3-13
f. The Board on Sand Movement and Beach Erosion ..................................... I-3-15
g. The Beach Erosion Board ............................................................................ I-3-15
h. BEB Focus on Basic Research .................................................................... I-3-16
i. Dalecarlia Reservation and World War II ..................................................... I-3-19
j. BEB Accomplishments ................................................................................. I-3-20
k. Evolution of Shore Protection and the Shift from Structures to Beach
Nourishment ................................................................................................. I-3-21
l. The Coastal Engineering Research Center and the Coastal Engineering
Research Board ........................................................................................... I-3-22
(1) Early Years .......................................................................................... I-3-22
(2) Fort Belvoir .......................................................................................... I-3-22
(3) Field Research Facility ........................................................................ I-3-23
(4) Shore Protection Manual ..................................................................... I-3-23
(5) Waterways Experiment Station ........................................................... I-3-23
(6) The Coastal and Hydraulics Laboratory .............................................. I-3-23
I-3.8 Coastal Engineering in the Military ...................................................................... I-3-23
a. Amphibious Operations ................................................................................ I-3-23
b. Expedient Harbors ........................................................................................ I-3-24
c. Military Coastal Engineering Studies ............................................................ I-3-24
d. Port operations, Republic of Korea ............................................................... I-3-25
e. Port operations, Republic of Vietnam ........................................................... I-3-25
(1) Vung Ro ............................................................................................... I-3-26
(2) Da Rang River ..................................................................................... I-3-26
f. Temporary Wharfs ........................................................................................ I-3-26
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Contents vii
g. Rapidly Installed Breakwater System ........................................................... I-3-27
I-3.9 Summary ............................................................................................................. I-3-28
I-3.10 References .......................................................................................................... I-3-29
I-3.11 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... I-3-36
I-4. The Coastal Engineering Manual ...................................................................................... I-4-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... I-4-i
I-4.1 Background ......................................................................................................... I-4-1
a. Shore Protection Planning and Design, TR 4 ............................................... I-4-1
b. Shore Protection Manual, SPM .................................................................... I-4-1
c. Coastal Engineering Manual, CEM .............................................................. I-4-2
I-4.2 Structure .............................................................................................................. I-4-2
a. Part II ............................................................................................................ I-4-2
b. Part III ........................................................................................................... I-4-2
c. Part IV .......................................................................................................... I-4-2
d. Part V ........................................................................................................... I-4-3
e. Part VI .......................................................................................................... I-4-3
f. Appendix A ................................................................................................... I-4-3
g. Updates ........................................................................................................ I-4-3
I-4.3 References .......................................................................................................... I-4-3
I-4.4 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... I-4-4
Part II.
II-1. Water Wave Mechanics ..................................................................................................... II-1-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... II-1-i
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... II-1-iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... II-1-iv
II-1.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... II-1-1
II-1.2 Regular Waves .................................................................................................... II-1-3
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-1-3
b. Definition of Wave Parameters ..................................................................... II-1-4
c. Linear Wave Theory ..................................................................................... II-1-5
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-1-5
(2) Wave Celerity, Length, and Period ...................................................... II-1-6
(3) The Sinusoidal Wave Profile ............................................................... II-1-9
(4) Some Useful Functions ....................................................................... II-1-9
(5) Local Fluid Velocities and Accelerations ............................................. II-1-12
(6) Water Particle Displacements ............................................................. II-1-13
(7) Subsurface Pressure ........................................................................... II-1-21
(8) Group Velocity ..................................................................................... II-1-22
(9) Wave Energy and Power ..................................................................... II-1-26
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(10) Summary of Linear Wave Theory ........................................................ II-1-29
d. Nonlinear wave theories ............................................................................... II-1-30
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-1-30
(2) Stokes Finite-amplitude Wave Theory ................................................. II-1-32
(3) Subsurface Pressure ........................................................................... II-1-34
(4) Maximum Wave Steepness ................................................................. II-1-35
e. Other Wave Theories ................................................................................... II-1-36
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-1-36
(2) Nonlinear Shallow-water Wave Theories ............................................. II-1-36
(3) Korteweg and de Vries and Boussinesq Wave Theories ..................... II-1-36
(4) Cnoidal Wave Theory .......................................................................... II-1-37
(5) Solitary Wave Theory .......................................................................... II-1-41
(6) Stream-function Wave Theory ............................................................. II-1-50
(7) Fourier Approximation – Fenton’s Theory ........................................... II-1-50
f. Wave Breaking ............................................................................................. II-1-56
g. Validity of Wave Theories ............................................................................. II-1-56
II-1.3 Irregular Waves ................................................................................................... II-1-59
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-1-59
b. Wave Train (Wave-by-wave) Analysis .......................................................... II-1-65
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-1-65
(2) Zero-crossing Method .......................................................................... II-1-65
(3) Definition of Wave Parameters ............................................................ II-1-66
(4) Significant Wave Height ...................................................................... II-1-68
(5) Short-term Random Sea State Parameters ......................................... II-1-68
(6) Probability Distributions for a Sea State .............................................. II-1-70
(7) Wave Height Distribution ..................................................................... II-1-74
(8) Wave Period Distribution ..................................................................... II-1-75
(9) Joint Distribution of Wave Heights and Periods ................................... II-1-76
c. Spectral Analysis .......................................................................................... II-1-77
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-1-77
(2) Description of Wave Spectral Analysis ................................................ II-1-80
(3) Examples of Frequency Spectra ......................................................... II-1-85
(4) Wave Spectrum and Its Parameters .................................................... II-1-85
(5) Relationships among H , H and H in Shallow Water ...................... II-1-88
1/3 s m0
(6) Parametric Spectrum Models .............................................................. II-1-88
(7) Directional Spectra .............................................................................. II-1-93
(8) Wave Groups and Groupiness Factors ............................................... II-1-95
(9) Random Wave Simulation ................................................................... II-1-97
(10) Kinematics and Dynamics of Irregular Waves ..................................... II-1-98
II-1.4 References and Bibliography .............................................................................. II-1-99
II-1.5 Definitions of Symbols ......................................................................................... II-1-116
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II-1.6 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... II-1-121
II-2. Meteorology and Wave Climate ........................................................................................ II-2-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... II-2-i
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... II-2-iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... II-2-iv
II-2.1 Meteorology ......................................................................................................... II-2-1
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-2-1
(1) Background ......................................................................................... II-2-1
(2) Organized Scales of Motion in the Atmosphere .................................. II-2-1
(3) Temporal Variability of Wind Speeds .................................................. II-2-3
b. General Structure of Winds in the Atmosphere ............................................ II-2-5
c. Winds in Coastal and Marine Areas ............................................................. II-2-7
d. Characteristics of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer .................................... II-2-8
e. Characteristics of Near-surface Winds ......................................................... II-2-9
f. Estimating Marine and Coastal Winds .......................................................... II-2-11
(1) Wind Estimates Based on Near-surface Observations ........................ II-2-11
(2) Wind Estimates Based on Information from Pressure Fields and
Weather Maps ..................................................................................... II-2-15
g. Meteorological Systems and Characteristic Waves ..................................... II-2-23
h. Winds in Hurricanes ..................................................................................... II-2-27
i. Step-by-step Procedure for Simplified Estimate of Winds for Wave
Prediction ..................................................................................................... II-2-34
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-2-34
(2) Wind Measurements ............................................................................ II-2-34
(3) Procedure for Adjusting Observed Winds ........................................... II-2-34
(a) Level ............................................................................................. II-2-34
(b) Duration ........................................................................................ II-2-34
(c) Overland or Overwater ................................................................. II-2-36
(d) Stability ......................................................................................... II-2-36
(4) Procedure for Adjusting Winds from Synoptic Weather Charts ........... II-2-36
(a) Geostrophic Wind Speed ............................................................. II-2-36
(b) Level and Stability ........................................................................ II-2-36
(c) Duration ........................................................................................ II-2-36
(5) Procedure for Estimating Fetch ........................................................... II-2-36
II-2.2 Wave Hindcasting and Forecasting ..................................................................... II-2-37
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-2-37
b. Wave Prediction in Simple Situations ........................................................... II-2-43
(1) Assumptions in Simplified Wave Predictions ....................................... II-2-44
(a) Deep Water .................................................................................. II-2-44
(b) Wave Growth with Fetch .............................................................. II-2-44
(c) Narrow Fetches ............................................................................ II-2-45
(d) Shallow Water .............................................................................. II-2-45
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(2) Prediction of Deepwater Waves from Nomograms .............................. II-2-46
(3) Prediction of Shallow-water Waves ..................................................... II-2-47
c. Parametric Prediction of Waves in Hurricanes ............................................ II-2-47
II-2.3 Coastal Wave Climates in the United States ....................................................... II-2-50
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-2-50
b. Atlantic Coast ............................................................................................... II-2-52
c. Gulf of Mexico .............................................................................................. II-2-56
d. Pacific Coast ................................................................................................ II-2-58
e. Great Lakes .................................................................................................. II-2-58
II-2.4 Additional Example Problem ............................................................................... II-2-61
II-2.5 References .......................................................................................................... II-2-63
II-2.6 Definitions of Symbols ......................................................................................... II-2-74
II-2.7 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... II-2-78
II-3. Estimation of Nearshore Waves ........................................................................................ II-3-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... II-3-i
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... II-3-iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... II-3-iv
II-3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... II-3-1
a. Background .................................................................................................. II-3-1
b. Practical Limitations ..................................................................................... II-3-1
c. Importance of Water Level ........................................................................... II-3-2
d. Role of Gauging ........................................................................................... II-3-3
e. Physical Modeling ........................................................................................ II-3-3
II-3.2 Principles of Wave Transformation ...................................................................... II-3-4
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-3-4
b. Wave Transformation Equation .................................................................... II-3-4
c. Types of Wave Transformation .................................................................... II-3-5
II-3.3 Refraction and Shoaling ...................................................................................... II-3-6
a. Wave rays .................................................................................................... II-3-6
b. Straight and Parallel Contours ..................................................................... II-3-7
c. Realistic Bathymetry ..................................................................................... II-3-11
d. Problems in Ray Approach ........................................................................... II-3-15
e. Wave Diffraction ........................................................................................... II-3-16
f. Reflection ..................................................................................................... II-3-16
g. Refraction and Shoaling of Wave Spectra .................................................... II-3-17
h. Alternate Formulations ................................................................................. II-3-17
(1) Mild Slope Equation ............................................................................. II-3-17
(2) Boussinesq Equations ......................................................................... II-3-17
II-3.4 Transformation of Irregular Waves ...................................................................... II-3-18
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II-3.5 Advanced Propagation Methods ......................................................................... II-3-19
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-3-19
b. RCPWAVE ................................................................................................... II-3-20
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-3-20
(2) Examples of RCPWAVE Results ......................................................... II-3-21
(3) Data Requirements for RCPWAVE ..................................................... II-3-24
c. REFDIF ........................................................................................................ II-3-24
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-3-24
(2) Wave Breaking .................................................................................... II-3-25
(3) Wave Damping Mechanisms ............................................................... II-3-25
(4) Wave Nonlinearity ............................................................................... II-3-25
(5) Numerical Noise Filter ......................................................................... II-3-25
(6) Examples of REF/DIF1 Results Laboratory Verification ...................... II-3-25
(7) Data Requirements for REFDIF .......................................................... II-3-26
d. STWAVE ...................................................................................................... II-3-26
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-3-26
(2) Examples of STWAVE results ............................................................. II-3-29
(a) Spectral versus Monochromatic Calculations .............................. II-3-29
(b) Effects of Coupled Source Terms ................................................ II-3-29
(c) Wind Effects ................................................................................. II-3-29
(3) Data Requirements for STWAVE ........................................................ II-3-30
e. Limitations .................................................................................................... II-3-30
II-3.6 Guidance for Performing Wave Transformation Studies ..................................... II-3-31
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-3-31
b. Problem Formulation .................................................................................... II-3-32
c. Site Analysis ................................................................................................. II-3-32
d. Selection of Input Data Site .......................................................................... II-3-33
e. Selection of Wave Transformation Method .................................................. II-3-33
f. Calibration/Verification ................................................................................. II-3-33
g. Post-processing ............................................................................................ II-3-34
II-3.7 References .......................................................................................................... II-3-34
II-3.8 Definitions of Symbols ......................................................................................... II-3-40
II-3.9 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... II-3-41
II-4. Surf Zone Hydrodynamics ................................................................................................. II-4-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... II-4-i
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... II-4-ii
II-4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... II-4-1
II-4.2 Surf Zone Waves ................................................................................................. II-4-1
a. Incipient Wave Breaking ............................................................................... II-4-1
(1) Breaker Type ....................................................................................... II-4-1
(2) Breaker Criteria ................................................................................... II-4-3
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(3) Regular Waves .................................................................................... II-4-3
(4) Irregular Waves ................................................................................... II-4-4
b. Wave Transformation in the Surf Zone ......................................................... II-4-5
(1) Similarity Method ................................................................................. II-4-5
(2) Energy Flux Method ............................................................................ II-4-6
(3) Irregular Waves ................................................................................... II-4-8
(4) Waves over Reefs ............................................................................... II-4-11
II-4.3 Wave Setup ......................................................................................................... II-4-12
II-4.4 Wave Runup on Beaches .................................................................................... II-4-14
a. Regular Waves ............................................................................................. II-4-17
b. Irregular Waves ............................................................................................ II-4-18
II-4.5 Infragravity Waves ............................................................................................... II-4-19
II-4.6 Nearshore Currents ............................................................................................. II-4-20
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-4-20
b. Longshore Current ....................................................................................... II-4-22
c. Cross-shore Current ..................................................................................... II-4-25
d. Rip Currents ................................................................................................. II-4-26
II-4.7 References .......................................................................................................... II-4-27
II-4.8 Definitions of Symbols ......................................................................................... II-4-37
II-4.9 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... II-4-40
II-5. Water Levels and Long Waves .......................................................................................... II-5-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... II-5-i
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... II-5-iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... II-5-iv
II-5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... II-5-1
a. Purpose ........................................................................................................ II-5-1
b. Applicability .................................................................................................. II-5-1
c. Scope of Manual .......................................................................................... II-5-1
II-5.2 Classification of Water Waves ............................................................................. II-5-2
a. Wave Classification ...................................................................................... II-5-2
b. Discussion .................................................................................................... II-5-5
II-5.3 Astronomical Tides .............................................................................................. II-5-5
a. Description of Tides ...................................................................................... II-5-5
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-5-5
(2) Tide-producing Forces ......................................................................... II-5-6
(3) Spring/Neap Cycle ............................................................................... II-5-8
(4) Diurnal Inequality ................................................................................. II-5-9
b. Tidal Time Series Analysis ........................................................................... II-5-11
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-5-11
(2) Harmonic Constituents ........................................................................ II-5-11
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Contents xiii
(3) Harmonic Reconstruction .................................................................... II-5-18
(4) Tidal Envelope Classification ............................................................... II-5-23
c. Glossary of Tide Elevation Terms ................................................................ II-5-25
II-5.4 Water Surface Elevation Datums ........................................................................ II-5-27
a. Introduction ................................................................................................... II-5-27
b. Tidal-observation-based Datums .................................................................. II-5-27
c. 1929 NGVD Datum ...................................................................................... II-5-28
d. Great Lakes Datums .................................................................................... II-5-32
e. Long-term Variations in Datums ................................................................... II-5-32
f. Tidal Datums ................................................................................................ II-5-32
g. Changes in Lake Level Datums .................................................................... II-5-37
h. Design Considerations ................................................................................. II-5-38
II-5.5 Storm Surge ........................................................................................................ II-5-38
a. Storm Types ................................................................................................. II-5-38
(1) Tropical Storms ................................................................................... II-5-39
(2) Extratropical Storms ............................................................................ II-5-42
(3) Surge Interaction with Tidal Elevations ............................................... II-5-43
b. Storm Event Frequency-of-occurrence Relationships .................................. II-5-43
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-5-43
(2) Historical Method ................................................................................. II-5-46
(3) Synthetic Method ................................................................................. II-5-47
(4) Empirical Simulation Technique .......................................................... II-5-47
(a) Introduction ................................................................................... II-5-47
(b) EST – Tropical Storm Application ................................................ II-5-47
(c) EST – Extratropical Storm Application ......................................... II-5-49
II-5.6 Seiches ................................................................................................................ II-5-51
II-5.7 Numerical Modeling of Long-wave Hydrodynamics ............................................ II-5-54
a. Long-wave Modeling .................................................................................... II-5-54
b. Physical Models ........................................................................................... II-5-54
c. Numerical Models ......................................................................................... II-5-55
(1) Introduction .......................................................................................... II-5-55
(2) Example – Tidal Circulation Modeling ................................................. II-5-56
(3) Example – Storm Surge Modeling ....................................................... II-5-57
II-5.8 References .......................................................................................................... II-5-64
II-5.9 Definitions of Symbols ......................................................................................... II-5-69
II-5.10 Acknowledgments ............................................................................................... II-5-71
II-6. Hydrodynamics of Tidal Inlets ........................................................................................... II-6-i
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... II-6-i
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... II-6-iii
List of Figures .................................................................................................................... II-6-iv
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