Table Of ContentCOAL-FIRED
ELECTRICITY AND
EMISSIONS CONTROL
EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS
DAVID A. TILLMAN
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In memory of my late father, James L. Tillman.
A career engineer and a lifelong student of history.
This book is for him.
PREFACE
Coal fueled the industrial revolution in the United States, England, Ger-
many, Russia, and elsewhere around the globe. It is no stretch to say that
coal use in the United States served an environmental protection function;
inthelate19thcentury,avastamountoftheforestlandwasbeingharvested
forbothmaterialandfuelpurposes.Bythelate19thcentury,Vermontwas
only 10% forested, raising some environmental alarm. Similar issues existed
in parts of Pennsylvania and other states. The transition from wood fuel to
coal began at about 1850 and gained real momentum at about 1880. Coal
quickly became the fuel of the process industryddominated by iron and
steeldand transportationddominated by the railroads.
When the electricity generation industry came along in the 1980s and
beyond, it wasnatural for coal to fuel thethermal plantsstarting with Pearl
Street Station and growing from there. Stoker boilers and steam engines
originallydominatedtheindustry.Inthecourseofaboutacentury,turbines
ofincreasingsize(capacity)andcomplexityreplacedsteamengines.Pulver-
izedcoal,cyclone,andfluidizedbedboilersreplacedstoker-firedunits,and
boilersgrewincapacity,complexity,height,andcross-sectionalarea.Pollu-
tioncontrolsincludedthemethodsoffiringcoal,theselectionofcoals,and
theadditionofpostcombustioncontroltechnologies(e.g.,electrostaticpre-
cipitators).Ancillarytechnologiesfrompulverizerstoregenerativeairheaters
aided in this use of coal. Integrated coal gasification combined cycle power
plants also experienced some technological advances.
Coal-firedpowergenerationexperienceddramaticimprovementsinef-
ficiency. These efficiency gains, coupled with commercially proven post-
combustion controls, have led to the production of significantly fewer
airborne emissions in lb/kWh. They also experienced radically reduced
emissions in tons/yr. This included particulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen ox-
ides, hazardous air pollutants, and carbon dioxide. With respect to carbon
dioxide, the coal-fired power plant community is producing the same
amount of CO as of this writing (2017) as it did in 1980. Efficiency has
2
much to do with that. And there is more that can be gained through effi-
ciency if the permitting process allows new coal-fired power plants to go
forward.
This book focuses on commercially proven technologies; as a conse-
quence, it passes over some of the developments that did not come to
j
xi
xii Preface
commercialfruition.Principleamongthesecouldwellbemagnetohydrody-
namics (MHD), where a stream of exceedingly hot gas seeded with potas-
sium iodide or a similar compound is passed through a magnetic field to
produce direct current that can be converted to alternating current. The
(cid:2)
waste heat from this open channel (at, for example, 3500 F) can then be
passed through a conventional waste heat boiler series. Efficiencies >50%
can be achieved, particularly if the MHD channel is coupled with an ultra-
supercritical boiler. The Russians built a 27MW open-channel MHD test
unit. Avco and others in the United States also built systems. The Achilles
heel of this technology, when developed in the 1960s and 1970s, was
extremely high rates of NO generation; selective catalytic reduction was
x
not available at that time. Perhaps it should be reexamined.
This book focuses on commercially proven technologies using a histor-
ical track as one principle analytic tool. It follows the principle: “you can’t
tell where you are going if you don’t know where you have been.” The
historical track is of critical importance. It documents many of the critical
developments that have improved power generation efficiency (coal-to-
kilowatts) some 20-fold. It shows how one technology builds on another
toachievetheultimatestateoftechnologythatwenowhave.Thisapproach
provides a means to evaluate emissions generation and release. Because the
book uses history as an analytical tool, it must address Dr. Robert
Heilbroner’squestionsof“Domachinesmakehistory?”and“Doestechnol-
ogydrivehistory?”ThesequestionsarealsoposedbyDr.MerrittRoeSmith
andDr.LeoMarx.Inthebroadestsense,theanswertobothquestionsmust
be a resounding “yes.” The creation of electricity as a near-universally
available, cheap, and widely useful source of energy has made history over
and over again and has driven history. Inventions of the electric light bulb
and the electric motor are sufficient proof. This book, however, drills
down beyond the broadest spectrum to evaluate the specific trends of the
technology. This proves more interesting and more complex.
Because this book provides a means to evaluate technologies for power
generation and emissions management, it required the active support of
many individuals, and many are acknowledged here. Certainly, the book
would not have been possible without the active support of Bruce Miller
of the Pennsylvania State University. Other contributors as reviewers and
data suppliers included Dr. N. Stanley Harding, Donald Kawecki, Director
fortheAmericasofHamon(includingResearchCottrell),DaoN.B.Duong
ofAmecFosterWheeler,Dr.EvanHughes,andJeffreyNelson.Suppliersof
much information and photography included Claudia Banner, Tammy
Preface xiii
Ridout, and Sarah Garwood of American Electric Power; Michael Dunlap
II, Andrew Dobrzanski, David Nordstrand, Dominic Martino, and Jason
WongofDTEEnergy;TomJohnsonofSouthernCompany;LeonardAllen
of Weststar; William Kitto; Greg Tomei and Greg Golub of Babcock &
Wilcox; James Kaufman of Tacoma Public Utilities; Chris Catalano,
commercial artist; Patricia P. Andersen of Sargent & Lundy; Tanveer
Kahn of Amec Foster Wheeler; Neil Raskin; and Donald Bonk. Without
theiramazinghelp,includingpermissionstousephotographsandcritiquing
ofchapterdrafts,thisbookwouldnothavehappened.Theyareresponsible
formanyoftheinsights;Itakefullownershipofthemistakesandshortcom-
ings of this effort.
Givenallofthat,thisbookisanattempttoshowwhatprogresshasbeen
made in coal-fired power plant technology, and how efficiency can be a
critical technology in emissions management.
Sincerely,
David A. Tillman, PhD
CHAPTERONE
Introduction: The Overarching
Issues
1. INTRODUCTION
Electricity!Theverytermhascometomeannotonlytheformofen-
ergythatwereceiveandconsumewhenwefliptheswitchonourwall,but
it also connotes excitement anddto a very large extentdprogress. The
phrase, “its electric” has a very positive connotation. Society’s mastery of
electrons and their versatility has come to be a sound measure of our very
standardofliving.Fromthemachinistinthefactory,totheautomobileme-
chanic, to the parent performing household chores, to the young and old
alike seeking communication with friends and entertainment both within
and outside ofthe home,electricity utilization asa measureof ourstandard
of living and the quality of our employment is obvious.
1.1 Characteristics of Electricity
Ignoring,forthemoment,thetechnicalcharacteristicsdefinedinOhm’slaw
and other properties taught and learned in physics lectures and texts, there
are very important functional characteristics of electricity. These character-
isticsorfunctionalpropertiesarecriticalbothtotheuserandthesupplierof
electricity.Thesecharacteristics arethebasisforthephenomenalgrowthof
this commodity in our everyday life.
1.1.1 Beneficial Attributes of Electricity
Electricity canbeused toproducelight.Theinventionof theincandescent
light bulb by Thomas Alva Edison in 1879 is frequently considered as the
seminal invention ushering in the age of electricity. Although the first suc-
cessful light bulbs had a functional life of 40h, by 1880 Edison’s incandes-
centlightbulbshadfunctionallivesof1200h[1e3].ButEdisonwasnotthe
only inventor and developer of electric light technology. Europeans had
used arc lamps for theater lighting since 1849 [2]. Charles Brush developed
arc lamps for outdoor use that generated very bright light; these were used
firstforstreetlightinginCleveland,Ohio,andwerethenusedinDetroit[4]
Coal-FiredElectricityandEmissionsControl
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2 Coal-FiredElectricityandEmissionsControl
andinothercitiesacrosstheUnitedStates.Subsequentinventionsincluded
fluorescent light bulbs, mercury vapor lamps, and more.
Electricity can be used to generate motion, and force, through the
operation of motors. Electric motors have become ubiquitous in society
and have been so for many years. Today they come in all sizes from the
tiny fractional horsepower motors used to drive household appliances to
the giant motors of industry (e.g., the twin 5000-kW motors used to pro-
duce thermomechanical pulp for the manufacture of newsprint and other
papers [5]).
Electricity can be used to generate heat, or cold, through a variety of
technologies. These include resistance heating, heat pumps, and a variety
of other devices. Air-conditioning and refrigeration use electricity to cool
(or make cold) certain defined spaces.
Electricity can be used to drive industrial processes such as the Halle
Heroult process for smelting of aluminum. Electrowinning also applies to
other nonferrous metals, such as copper, lead, zinc, and more. Even gold
canbeobtainedbysuchprocesses.Althoughadiscussionofelectrowinning
techniques is well beyond the scope of this text, an excellent discussion of
copperproductionbyleachingorsolventextractioncanbefoundinBeukes
and Badenhorst [6].
Electricity can also be used to power electronics (e.g., the television),
generate vibrations for sound, transmit information (starting with the tele-
graph and telephone), and a host of other applications. In short it is the
most versatile form of energy that exists today. These applications will be
explored in more detail in subsequent sections of this chapter.
1.1.2 Limitations of Electricity
Electricity has one limitation, however: storage in large quantities is not
practical and, for the most part, not possible today. Batteries can be used
for small- and moderate-sized uses up to and including automobiles with
limited transportation ranges. However, unlike fossil and combustible fuels
orwaterusedinhydroelectricgeneratingstations,electricitydoesnotstore.
Generateit,transmitittothepointofuse,anduseit.Thiscreatestheneed
for a vast and complex infrastructure of transmission and distribution
systems.
1.2 Electricity Intertwined With Coal
From the very first central station power plant, the Pearl St. Station
built by and operated by the business interests of Thomas Edison in
Introduction:TheOverarchingIssues 3
Figure1.1 Sources ofenergyforthegenerationofelectricity, 1947e2015.Notethat
thecategory“allother”includeshydroelectric,petroleum,biomass,geothermal,wind
and solar power. Based on H. Enzer, W. Dupree, S. Miller, Energy Perspectives, US
DepartmentoftheInterior,Washington,DC,1975;USEnergyInformationAdministration,
MonthlyEnergyReview:November2015,USDepartmentofEnergy,Washington,DC,2015;
W. Dupree, H. Enzer, S. Miller, D. Hilllier, Energy Perspectives 2, US Department of the
Interior,Washington,DC,1976.
NewYorkCity,electricitygenerationhasbeenconnectedcloselytocoal.
At the dawn of the electrical age numerous very small generating stations
were built near the markets for power; many were direct current (DC)
stations, although the innovations of Nikola Tesla and George Westing-
house, promoting alternating current (AC) stations were beginning to
takehold.Electricitywasgeneratedlargelyeitherinhydroelectricinstalla-
tions such as the power station at Niagara Falls or in these small coal-fired
power plants (see, for example, Refs. [1,2,7]). And throughout the 20th
century, and to the present day, coal remains the most common source
of energy used to generate electricity as is shown in Fig. 1.1.
1.2.1 Early Developments of Electricity and Coal
Notethat,intheearlyyearsofelectricity,therewassignificantcompetition
forthelightingmarketbetweenelectricity,naturalgasifavailable,andtown
4 Coal-FiredElectricityandEmissionsControl
Figure1.2 ThecoalgasificationplantinSeattle,asitnowstandsasacenterpiecein
GasworksPark.
gasgeneratedfromcoal,coke,orheavyoil.Untilnaturalgasbecameavail-
able throughout all of the major markets of the United Statesdthe major
urbanareasdtowngasmadefromcoalwasafixture.Thefamed“gashouse
gang” of the St. Louis Cardinals in 1934 with Dizzy and Paul Dean, Leo
Durocher, Frankie Frisch, Joe (Ducky) Medwick, Enos (Country)
Slaughter, and more was named to reflect the town gas plant supplying
coalgas tothat city. Virtuallyeverymajor cityhad itsown coal gasification
plant;theoneservingSeattle,Washington,ispreservedasapublicpark(see
Fig. 1.2). Electricity came to dominate the lighting market and become
competitive in terms of heating and cooking (household thermal)
applications.
IntheUnitedStates,electricitybecamethedominantmarketforcoalin
about1960(seeFig.1.3)andbecametheoverwhelmingmarketforcoalby
1980[8].InGreatBritain,electricitybecametheprimarymarketforcoalin
about1968;itthenbecamethenearexclusivemarketforcoalshortlythere-
after [10]. Electricity became the dominating market for coal in Germany,
Denmark, and other northern European nations as well. The same holds
trueinChinaandmostofAsiaaswell.Thesymbioticrelationshipbetween
electricity supply and the use of coal in power plants is thus well beyond
debate.
1.2.2 Coal Production in Response to the Electricity Market
The growth in the use of electricity within the US economy and within
other developed economies throughout the 20th and early 21st centuries
has been spectacular, as will be discussed in the subsequent section of this
book. At the same time, coal has beendand remainsdthe backbone of
the electricity industry. Coal is abundant in the United States and found
