Table Of Contentw
Chronological
R
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Old Kingdom Tombs
At the end of the 6th dynasty the 500-year-old established order of the Old Kingdom fell apart,
which, according to the interpretation given to various contemporary literary sources, started a
period of social unrest and economic decline. in the Necropoleis of
The magnitude of the economic investment bestowed by the members of the higher social strata
on the monuments that would be the abode for their after-life, leads to the hypothesis that an Giza, Saqqara and Abusir
economic decline could also manifest itself in the dimensions of the various architectonic elements
of these monuments.
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The dimensions of the tombs have been chosen as the subject of this study. The preliminary part of h
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the study is performed on the tombs in the necropolis of Giza. The results of the study are compared o Toward an Economic Decline
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with the same measurements in the necropoleis of Saqqara and Abusir. The conclusion is that the o
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economic decline had started already in the early dynastic period and was not a result of the caving o during the Early Dynastic
g
in of the Old Kingdom. ic
a
l Period and the Old Kingdom
An interesting ‘side-effect’ of the study is that the dimensions of the tombs can serve as a method D
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to check a proposed dating based on other aspects of the tombs. v
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Archaeopress Egyptology 15
Archaeopress Archaeology www.archaeopress.com
Roeten cover.indd 1 24/10/2016 15:34:07
Chronological
Developments in the
Old Kingdom Tombs
in the Necropoleis of
Giza, Saqqara and Abusir
Toward an Economic Decline during
the Early Dynastic Period and the
Old Kingdom
Leo Roeten
Archaeopress Egyptology 15
Archaeopress Publishing Ltd
Gordon House
276 Banbury Road
Oxford OX2 7ED
www.archaeopress.com
ISBN 978 1 78491 460 8
ISBN 978 1 78491 461 5 (e-Pdf)
© Archaeopress and Leo Roeten 2016
Cover: Three types of ‘rich’ mortuary monuments: a royal pyramid, a queens’ pyramid and the mastaba of a member of
the royal family or of the highest non-royal social stratum (Giza, eastern field) (photo author)
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the copyright owners.
This book is available direct from Archaeopress or from our website www.archaeopress.com
For Marga whom I love
Contents
List of Figures ...............................................................................................................................................................iii
Technical Terms and Abbreviations .............................................................................................................................v
Bibliography and Bibliographical Abbreviations .........................................................................................................vi
Part I:
Various Chronological Developments of Dimensional Aspects of the Tombs in the
Necropolis of Giza .............................................................................................................................................1
Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................3
I. The purpose of this study .....................................................................................................................................5
Chapter One:
Preliminary Considerations ....................................................................................................................................8
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................................8
I. A concise history of the development of the non-royal funerary architecture ....................................................8
II. Experiments in funerary tradition during the reigns of Snefru and Khufu.........................................................12
II.1. The layout of non-royal cemeteries ...........................................................................................................12
II.2. Tomb architecture ....................................................................................................................................13
III. About climate change .......................................................................................................................................15
III.1. Environmental consequences of climate change ......................................................................................15
III.2. Climate change and chapel decoration ....................................................................................................16
IV. About chronology .............................................................................................................................................17
IV.1. The chronological order of the kings of the old kingdom .........................................................................17
IV.2. Considerations concerning the dating of tombs .......................................................................................17
V. About the tombs included in the catalogues .....................................................................................................18
Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................18
Chapter Two:
The Necropolis of Giza ..........................................................................................................................................24
I. The necropolis before the fourth dynasty ..........................................................................................................24
II. The Necropolis of Giza until the end of the fourth dynasty ...............................................................................24
Chapter Three:
The Chronological Development of the Number of False Doors .........................................................................30
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................30
II. The Percentage of Tombs with Chapels with two or more False Doors .............................................................31
III. Discussion per period .......................................................................................................................................33
Chapter Four:
The Chronological Development of the Dimensions of the Tombs and Their Chapels. Part I ............................40
I. Data management and methodology. ................................................................................................................40
II. The surface of the tomb versus the surface of its chapel .................................................................................40
Chapter Five:
The Chronological Developments in the Dimensions of the Tombs and Their Chapels. Part II ..........................56
I. The dimensions of tombs and chapels................................................................................................................56
II. The surface ranges of richer and poorer tombs .................................................................................................59
Chapter Six:
The Chronological Development of the Number of False Doors in Relation to the Dimensions of the Tomb ...62
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................62
II. The number of false doors in relation to the dichotomy between ‘richer’ and ‘poorer’ tombs........................62
III. Discussion ........................................................................................................................................................64
i
Chapter Seven:
Discussion, Analyses and Conclusions in Relation to the Necropolis of Giza ......................................................65
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................65
II. Richer and poorer funerary monuments ...........................................................................................................65
III. Secondary burials ..............................................................................................................................................70
IV. The false doors ..................................................................................................................................................71
V. Preliminary conclusions ....................................................................................................................................76
Part II
The Necropoleis of Abusir and Saqqara. A Verification of the Chronological
Tendencies in the Necropolis of Giza ........................................................................................................79
Chapter Eight:
The Necropolis of Saqqara ....................................................................................................................................81
I. The chronological development of the necropolis of Saqqara ..........................................................................81
II. The chronological development of the employment of the various types of chapels in the necropoleis of
Saqqara and Giza ...................................................................................................................................................82
Chapter Nine:
Various Chronological Developments in the Necropolis of Saqqara ..................................................................84
I. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................84
II. The percentage of tombs with two or more false doors in the chapel ..............................................................84
III. The dimensions of tombs and chapels..............................................................................................................84
IV. The surface of richer and poorer tombs and their chapels ...............................................................................91
V. The tombs at Saqqara-north from the 1st to the 4th dynasty ...........................................................................96
Appendix IX.1. the equivalence of two types of cloud-diagrams ...........................................................................98
Chapter Ten:
The Tombs in the Necropolis of Abusir ..............................................................................................................101
I. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................101
II. Discussion of the tombs in the necropolis of Abusir ........................................................................................101
III. Dating versus tomb dimensions .....................................................................................................................106
IV. The application of the dating check ...............................................................................................................108
V. Further chronological developments of tombs in the necropolis of Abusir .....................................................112
Part III
Additional Methods for Controlling the Proposed Dating of a Tomb ..........................................115
Chapter Eleven:
Methods of Checking the Proposed Datings of Tombs ......................................................................................117
I. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................117
II. The methods ....................................................................................................................................................117
III. Tombs with an uncertain dating (testing the dating method) ........................................................................117
The Chapter Twelve:
The Necropoleis of Saqqara, Giza and Abusir: Discussion and Conclusions .....................................................122
I. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................122
II. The necropolis of Giza ......................................................................................................................................122
III. The necropolis of Saqqara ..............................................................................................................................122
IV. The necropolis of Abusir .................................................................................................................................122
V. Discussion ........................................................................................................................................................123
Part IV
Catalogues and Tables .................................................................................................................................129
Catalogues .................................................................................................................................................................131
General Index ............................................................................................................................................................143
ii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Three types of ‘rich’ mortuary monuments: a royal pyramid, a queens’ pyramid and the mastaba of
a member of the royal family or of the highest non-royal social stratum (Giza, eastern field) (photo
author). ...........................................................................................................................................................4
Figure 2. Entrance of the tomb of WAS-PtH, (PM, III/1, 273; Hassan, Giza II, plate IV). .................................................4
Figure 3. Entrance of the tomb of Mrrw-kA.j, (PM, III/2, 525–34; Photo: www.wikepedia, Mereruka, Saqqara). ........4
Figure 4. Decoration northern entrance thickness of the mastaba of SSAt-Htp, (PM. III/1, 149–50; Junker,
Giza II, fig. 25 (page 180)). ..............................................................................................................................4
Figure 5. Large mastaba with palace facade panelling (1st dynasty). ...........................................................................9
Figure 6. The remains of an exterior mud-brick chapel (Junker, Giza I, plate XXXIIIa)...................................................9
Figure 7 Exterior chapel with L-shaped offering room ................................................................................................10
Figure 8 Interior L-shaped offering room with exterior mud-brick chapel ..................................................................10
Figure 9. Plan chapel of Axtj-Htp, PM, III/2, 453, A 1, dating IV.E. (after Mariette, Mastabas, 67-70). ........................11
Figure 10. Plan chapel of PtH-Htp, D 51; PM, III/2, 581-2; dating IV.L – V.E. (after Mariette, Mastabas, 314-6). ........11
Figure 11. Plan chapel of Nxft-kA.j, (PM, PM III/2, 580-1) ...........................................................................................11
Figure 12 Plan chapel of Snnw-anx, (PM, III/2, 582) ....................................................................................................12
Figure 13. Plan of chapel of Ḫnw, PM, III/2, 488-9; dating V.L – VE. (after Mariette, Mastabas, 184-6). ....................12
Figure 14. Plan of chapel of KA.j-.m-nfrt, PM, III/2, 467-8; dating V.M/L (after Mariette, Mastabas, 242-9). .............12
Figure 15. Morgan’s ‘Mastabas du Sud’ (detail of the plan of the necropolis of Dahshur). ........................................14
Figure 16. Time scale Neolithic and Old Kingdom .......................................................................................................16
Figure 17. Scene in the mastaba of Mrrw -kA.j, (PM, III/2, 525–34) .............................................................................17
Figure 18. The chronological division of the Old Kingdom (after Harper, DETOK, 34). ................................................18
Figure 19. A field of stone built mastabas at Giza (Junker, Giza, VII, plate Ia). ............................................................19
Figure 20. Rock-cut tombs at Giza (photo author). .....................................................................................................19
Figure 21. Western wall of the chapel in the mastaba of KA.j-swDA, (G 5340; PM, III/1, 159); (Junker, Giza VII,
plate XXXIVa). ...............................................................................................................................................20
Figure 22. Plan of the chapel of MTn, LS 6; PM, III/2, 493–4; IV.E. (after LD, II, 3–7). ..................................................21
Figure 23. Plan of a tomb with a narrow east/west oriented chapel.(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure 164). ....................21
Figure 24. Plan of a rock-cut tomb with a separate chapel.(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure. 144) ...................................21
Figure 25. Plan of a corridor chapel with a narrow recess. (after Junker, Giza XI, Figure 23). ....................................21
Figure 26. Plan of the eastern exterior wall of the mastaba of SSAt-Htp, (after Kanawati, Giza II, plate 39). ...............22
Figure 27. Plan of an exterior chapel with one offering place (false door).(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure 109). ...........22
Figure 28. Plan of an exterior chapel with one offering place (slab stele).(after Reisner, Giza I, Figure 95). ..............22
Figure 29. Plan of the Old Kingdom necropolis of Giza including the southern part of the Plateau ...........................25
Figure 30. Plan of the Old Kingdom necropolis of Giza at the end of the 4th dynasty. ...............................................26
Figure 31. Satellite photo of the Giza Plateau .............................................................................................................27
Figure 32. The quarry wall west of the pyramid of Rakhaef (IV.4) with rock-cut tombs. (Photo author). ...................27
Figure 33. Satellite photo of the pyramid of Radjedef at Abu Rawash ........................................................................27
Figure 34. Western cemetery (schematic) ...................................................................................................................28
Figure 35. Mastaba with the placement of a slab stele and cult utensils in front of it (G 4360) .................................30
Figure 36. Mastaba with a true false door (photo author) ..........................................................................................31
Figure 37. A libation basin together with a statue of the tomb owner in front of the false door in the tomb of
Axtj-mrw-nswt, (PM, III/1, 80-1) (ASAE, 13-14 (1914), Plate 11b). ................................................................31
Figure 38. The chronological development of the percentage of chapels with two or more false doors ...................32
Figure 39. The tombs in cemetery F of Abu Rawash. ..................................................................................................35
Figure 40. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.E, cemetery F, Abu Rawash. .......................................................35
Figure 41. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.L, cemetery F, Abu Rawash. .......................................................36
Figure 42. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.E, cemetery F, Abu Rawash. ........................................................36
Figure 43. Necropolis F at Abu Rawash .......................................................................................................................37
Figure 44. Mastabas with a large surface area. .........................................................................................................41
Figure 45. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.E, Giza. .......................................................................................41
Figure 46. Length/width chapel diagram, period IV.E, Giza. ........................................................................................42
Figure 47. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV.L, Giza. ........................................................................................43
iii
Figure 48. Plan of the rock-cut chapel of KAw-nswt, (PM, III/1, 274) ..........................................................................43
Figure 49. The eastern wall of the tomb of KAw-nswt, (PM, III/1, 274) .......................................................................44
Figure 50. Length/width chapel diagram, period IV.L, Giza .........................................................................................44
Figure 51. Tombs with diverging dimensions, Giza. .....................................................................................................45
Figure 52. Surface tomb/chapel diagram of tombs with diverging dimensions, Giza. ................................................46
Figure 53. Plan of the organized mastaba fields around mastaba G 2000 ..................................................................47
Figure 54. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.E, Giza. ........................................................................................47
Figure 55. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.E, Giza. .........................................................................................48
Figure 56. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.M, Giza. .......................................................................................49
Figure 57. The tomb of ḎfA-nwst, (PM, III/1, 265) .......................................................................................................50
Figure 58. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.M, Giza. .......................................................................................50
Figure 59. The chapel of Jtj-sn; PM, III/1, 252‒3. ........................................................................................................51
Figure 60. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Giza. .........................................................................................52
Figure 61. The development of the corridor chapel of G 2093 (after Roth, Gmast 6, Figure 6). .................................52
Figure 62. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.L, Giza ..........................................................................................53
Figure 63. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period VI, Giza. ..........................................................................................54
Figure 64. Length/width chapel diagram, period VI, Giza. ..........................................................................................55
Figure 65. Tomb and chapel surface value spread for richer and poorer tombs. ........................................................57
Figure 66. Derivative values of the tomb and chapel surface spread for richer tombs. ..............................................57
Figure 67. Chronological development of the surface of richer tombs .......................................................................57
Figure 68. Derivative values of the tomb and chapel surface spread for poorer tombs. ...........................................58
Figure 69. Chronological development of the surface of poorer tombs .....................................................................58
Figure 70. The range of the surface of richer and poorer tombs ................................................................................59
Figure 71. The range of the chapel surface of richer and poorer tombs. ....................................................................60
Figure 72. Compilation of the surface ranges of richer and poorer tombs. ................................................................60
Figure 73. Tomb surface versus chapel surface as a percentage of the former. ..........................................................61
Figure 74. The percentage of richer tombs with two or more false doors. .................................................................63
Figure 75. The percentage of poorer tombs with two or more false doors ................................................................63
Figure 76. A possible chronological development of the surface of tombs ................................................................67
Figure 77. Another possible chronological development of the surface of tombs......................................................68
Figure 78. A possible chronological development of the surface of tombs from period V.E on ..................................68
Figure 79. Intrusive burials (Junker, Giza VII, plate III). ................................................................................................71
Figure 80. Intrusive burials (Junker, Giza I, XXXIII.b). ...................................................................................................71
Figure 81. The percentage of chapels with two or more false doors (after Figure 38). Adapted to the
developments in Figures 74 and 75. .............................................................................................................73
Figure 82. An intrusive burial with two false doors in the necropolis of Giza. (Junker, Giza V, plate XIVa ). ...............75
Figure 83. An intrusive burial with one false door in the necropolis of Giza. (photo author). ....................................75
Figure 84. The plan of the Memphite necropoleis.(after K. Baedecker, Egypt, Manuel du Voyageur (Paris,
1903), 188. ....................................................................................................................................................77
Figure 85. Plan of North Saqqara necropolis (after JEA , 60 (1974), 15, Figure 1). ......................................................81
Figure 86. Plan of Middle Saqqara necropolis (PM, III/2, plan XLI) ............................................................................82
Figure 87. Plan of South Saqqara necropolis (PM, III/2, plan XLI). ..............................................................................82
Figure 88. The chronological development of the chapel types in the necropolis of Saqqara. ...................................83
Figure 89. The chronological development of the chapel types in the necropolis of Giza. .........................................83
Figure 90 Percentage of chapels with two or more false doors ..................................................................................85
Figure 91. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period IV, Saqqara. ....................................................................................85
Figure 92. Length/width chapel diagram, period IV, Saqqara. ....................................................................................86
Figure 93. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.E, Saqqara. ...................................................................................87
Figure 94. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.M, Saqqara. .................................................................................87
Figure 95. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.M, Saqqara. .................................................................................88
Figure 96. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.M, Saqqara with the introduction of the corridor chapel ...........89
Figure 97. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Saqqara. ..................................................................................89
Figure 98. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period V.L, Saqqara (detail of Figure 97) ...................................................90
Figure 99. Length/width chapel diagram, period V.L, Saqqara. ...................................................................................90
Figure 100. Surface tomb/chapel diagram, period VI, Saqqara. ..................................................................................91
Figure 101. Length/width chapel diagram, period VI, Saqqara. ..................................................................................92
Figure 102. Tomb and chapel surface spread for richer and poorer tombs. ...............................................................92
Figure 104. Chronological development of the surface of richer tombs. ....................................................................93
iv
