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6
Evolution of the Relations
between China and ASEAN
A
Lu Jianren
ASEAN is a regional organization including all ten Southeast Asian countries.
Ten ASEAN countries are all close neighbours of China: Vietnam, Laos and
Myanmar are adjacent to China; the other seven countries——Thailand,
Cambodia, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines and Brunei are
located on the Indo-China Peninsula to the south, and around the South China
Sea to the southeast of China.
Ⅰ. Relations in the History
China and Southeast Asian countries have a long history of interactions.
According to Chinese historical literature, as early as the 2nd Century BC, in the
Qin Dynasty 2200 years ago (221 BC to 206 BC), the Chinese ancestors had
established communication with Vietnam and Burma by land. In the Western
Han Dynasty, that is 206 BC to 25 BC, Chinese ancestors explored a “Marine
Silk Road”, and started interactions with people on Southeast Asian islands.
During the reign of Emperor Wu (140 BC to 87 BC) of Han Dynasty, Chinese
ships disembarked from Nanhai (now Xuwen of Guangdong Province)
with loads of gold and silk, travelled by today’s Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia,
A Lu Jianren, Professor of Institute of Asia-Pacific Studies, Chinese Academy of Social
Sciences.
DGJ02.indd 115 2008-2-13 16:40:55
Making New Partnership
116 /
Indonesia, Myanmar and India to exchange for their local products, and
returned from Sri Lanka. Through marine silk trade, this route connected China
with Southeast Asia including Sumatra, with South Asia including India, with
the Arabian region including Da Shi(as it was called by ancient China). Those
regions were hubs of Chinese silk trade, as well as central locations of world
political, economic, religious and cultural centers. While developing silk trade,
the Marine Silk Road also promoted the communication between the peoples
of China and Southeast Asia.
In about the 3rd Century, several kingdoms appeared on the Indo-China
Peninsula and the Indonesian Archipelago. They sent delegations to China,
and began friendly interactions with the dynasties of Wei, Jin, and the South
and North Dynasties of China (3rd——6th Centuries). In Sui and Tang
Dynasties(6th——9th Centuries), the Chinese maritime transportation was highly
developed, in particular the route between Guangzhou and the Malay Peninsula.
China and Southeast Asian countries sent delegations to each other, and were
engaged in frequent trade and economic exchanges. Archaeological study proves
that during the Sui and Tang Dynasties, China exported a lot of porcelain
and silk to Southeast Asia, and imported a lot of perfumery, jewellery and
medicines. Later in Song and Yuan Dynasties (9th——13th Centuries), Chinese
marine businessmen explored another trade route on the Eastern Seas from the
southeast coast of China to the Philippine Archipelago. The communication
between the peoples of China and Southeast Asia thus expanded further. A
During 28 years of early Ming Dynasty from 1405 to 1433, Zheng He, as
a Chinese friendship envoy, travelled to the “Western Seas” seven times with
his huge fleet and crew. His destinations extended east from Liu Qiu (Ryuku-
gunto), the Philippines, and the Maluku Sea of Indonesia and west to the
Mozambique Strait and wide coastal areas of Southern Africa. Along a mileage
over 500000 kilometres, he interacted with over 30 countries on the way,
which is remembered as a miracle in world navigation history. Southeast Asia
was a necessary path of Zheng He’s voyages, and the Malaka Kingdom at the
A See Deninget Nie al., Quanqiuhua xia Zhongguo yu Dongnan Ya Jingmao Guanxi de Lishi,
Xianzhuang jiqi Qushi (The History, Current Situation and Trend of Economic and Trade Relations
between China and Southeast Asia under Globalization), Xiamen University Press, 2006, p.55.
DGJ02.indd 116 2008-2-13 16:40:55
6 Evolution of the Relations between China and ASEAN
/ 117
Malacca Strait became an important place for Zheng He’s crew to meet and
store supplies. The Malaka Kingdom also became a trade centre of Southeast
Asia. The voyages of Zheng He to the Western Seas greatly promoted the
friendly relations between the countries and peoples of China and Southeast
Asia. The principles advocated by Zheng He, that is “not to discriminate against
the minority; not to bully the weak; to interact friendly; and, to share peace”,
expressed the concept of peaceful diplomacy of the Chinese nation since
ancient times. Under the influence of Zheng He’s voyages, many residents of
the southeastern coast of China travelled overseas to settle in Southeast Asia
and contributed to the development of the South Seas. In the 1840s, there were
about 1.5 million overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia. A
China and Southeast Asian countries not only started friendly exchanges
from a very early time, but also share similar historical experiences. After the
Opium War in 1840, China gradually degraded into a semi-colonial semi-
feudal society. Around that time, Southeast Asian countries and regions also
became colonies of Western powers. Both China and Southeast Asian countries
suffered from brutal invasions of imperialists including the Great Britain,
France, Holland and Japan. However, the brave peoples of China and Southeast
Asia did not surrender to cruel colonial rule, but fought together and supported
each other. In the Asian revolution storm in the mid-19th Century, the Taiping
Tianguo Movement in China and the anti-colonial movement of Javanese in
Indonesia propelled and supported each other indirectly. The Xinhai Revolution
in China in the early 20th Century also boosted the anti-colonial movements
in Vietnam and Indonesia. During World War Ⅱ, the peoples of China and
Southeast Asia fought together against Fascist Japanese invasions and won the
final victory.
Ⅱ. Relations during the Cold War
On October 1, 1949, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was established.
A Fengbin Wu ed., Dongnan Ya Huaqiao Tongshi (The History of Overseas Chinese in Southeast
Asia), Fujian People’s Press, 1993, p.259.
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118 /
Among Southeast Asian countries, Vietnam, Indonesia and Myanmar first
recognized and established diplomatic relations with China in 1950. Later,
Cambodia and Laos established diplomatic relations with China in 1958 and
1961 respectively. Other Southeast Asian countries did not have diplomatic
relations with China for a long time because of the post Cold War structure.
The Cold War, represented by the bipolar antagonism between the US and
Russia, caused long-term opposition between the so-called capitalist camp
and the socialist camp. In such historical conditions, diplomatic relations
is dominated by politics and ideology; even neighbouring countries might
cut off relations and hold resentment towards each other. Some Southeast
Asian countries were fearful of China, thinking that China tried to “export
revolution”, to support the Communist militants in Southeast Asia and to
propagate radical leftist thinking of “the Cultural Revolution”. There was also
a problem of overseas Chinese. Therefore they regarded China as a significant
threat. China, on the other hand, saw these countries as pro-US and anti-China
and anti-Republic. From the 1950s to the mid-1970s, China and Thailand,
Malaysia and the Philippines were in such an opposition.
In 1954, in order to deter the expansion of Communism in Southeast Asia,
the US set up the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, A and dragged Thailand
and the Philippines to the track of the Cold War. Malaysia did not join the
organization, but still kept alliance with the UK. These three countries followed
the US publicly and were against China. At the Bandung Conference in 1955,
China proposed the “Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence”. The relations
between China and Thailand and the Philippines ameliorated for a while but
not very long. In the late 1950s, relations between China and Thailand, the
Philippines and Malaysia deteriorated again. In 1958, China established relations
with the Kingdom of Cambodia. The Thai government was extremely pro-
A In Se ptember 1954, the US, UK, France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, the
Philippines and Pakistan signed the Southeast Asia Collective Defence Treaty, or the so-
called Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). This was a military group formed by
the US during the Cold War. The motivations of the US to form this organization were
to establish a regional anti-Communist alliance; to contain China; to oppose the 1954
Geneva Agreement regarding the Indochina problem; and to consolidate and expand its
sphere of influence in Asia Pacific. The SEATO was dissolved in June 1977.
DGJ02.indd 118 2008-2-13 16:40:55
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US and anti-China, and viewed the establishment of relationship between
China and Cambodia as a move of China to expand influence in Southeast
Asia and to subvert Thailand. Therefore Thailand adopted massive domestic
and international anti-China, excluding-Chinese policies. A When Malaysia
became independent, it followed the UK and US and refused to recognize PRC.
It adopted a series of anti-China policies to resist China’s influence, such as
closing the Bank of China in Kuala Lumpur, prohibiting Chinese publications,
and opposing China’s seat at the United Nations.
When the Vietnam War broke out in the early 1960s, Thailand and the
Philippines sent troops to Vietnam to support the American army, while China
fully supported Vietnam to combat the US. The bilateral enmity increased. In
1967, “the Cultural Revolution”broke out in China, and Beijing started to“export
revolution” to Southeast Asia because of radical leftist thinking. China directly
supported the Communist Parties in Thailand, the Philippines and Malaysia.
Bilateral contention culminated.
The relations between China and Indonesia, the biggest Southeast Asian
country, have been up and down. In the early 1950s, bilateral relations were
good, although the duel citizenship of overseas Chinese was an uncertain
factor. During the Bandung Conference in 1955, China and Indonesia
signed the agreement that local Chinese should give up duel citizenship and
choose one voluntarily. This agreement enhanced Indonesia’s trust towards
China. In September 1956, President Sukarno visited China for the first
time and bilateral relations warmed up. However, soon because of dramatic
changes in domestic conditions in Indonesia after the coup by rightist army,
a huge wave of anti-Chinese movements happened and bilateral relations
went back.
In the early 1960s, the anti-China wave gradually receded. Sino-Indonesian
relations ameliorated. In March 1961, the two countries signed the Agreements
of Friendship and Cultural Cooperation. In April 1964, Chinese leader Liu
Shaoqi visited Indonesia and promoted bilateral relations to a new stage. China
then provided Indonesia with a series of political support and economic aid.
For instance, China supported Indonesia to reclaim territory (West Irian),
A See Xizhen Zhang, Contemporary Southeast Asia Politics, Guangxi People’s Press, 1994, p.467.
DGJ02.indd 119 2008-2-13 16:40:56
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120 /
oppose Malaysia and hold the New Powers Games. A The bilateral relationship
entered a honeymoon, and was called by Western countries as the “Beijing-
Jakarta Axis”.
In 1965, the“9·30” Incident happened in Indonesia; the regime changed
and the militarily-strong Suharto came into power. He carried out a three-
year “cleansing Communist” movement. Hundreds of thousands of suspected
Indonesian Communists or leftists were arrested or killed, including many
overseas Chinese. In 1967, an unprecedented anti-Chinese wave engulfed
Indonesia; many Chinese were prosecuted and killed. That was also during the
climax of “the Cultural Revolution”in China. Bilateral relations deteriorated
quickly. In October of the same year, Indonesia declared to cut off relations
with China. However, nobody predicted that the two countries would not
resume diplomatic relations until after 25 years.
On August 8, 1967, ASEAN was established. It was the first association
in Southeast Asia made of independent developing nations. Southeast Asian
countries came together for regional economic growth, social advancement and
cultural development. However, in the Cold War structure, China and ASEAN
was still in a status of mistrust and opposition.
In the early 1970s, international conditions changed significantly and Sino-
ASEAN relations improved gradually. In 1969, border armed conflict broke
out between China and Russia because of ideological differences. The Socialist
camp disintegrated. In order to contain China, Russia proposed an Asian
Collective Security System. In order to resist Russia’s threat and improve
relations with antagonist Southeast Asian countries, China’s view towards
ASEAN changed. When ASEAN published the Neutrality Declaration, China
gave its approval. China was also aware that because the US and UK started
to reduce their military force in Southeast Asia, ASEAN countries started to
reduce dependence on the West and to pursue neutrality.
In October 1971, China regained the seat at the UN and its international
status was greatly improved. In February 1972, American President Nixon
visited China. Sino-US relationship defrosted and the US policies towards
China changed. That had a great impact on the foreign policies of Thailand,
A Xizhan Zhang, Contemporary Southeast Asia Politics, p.464.
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the Philippines and Malaysia. They had to look for new China policies. In 1973,
Japan, America’s biggest ally in East Asia, established relations with China,
which again impacted heavily on the foreign policies of those three ASEAN
countries and prompted them to consider establishing relations with China.
The three countries gradually realized that opposing the biggest regional
neighbouring country, China, would not help eliminate the “China threat”;
nor would it help solve the domestic problem of Communist parties; that
recognizing PRC was an irresistible historical trend. Besides, mending relations
with China could reduce Beijing’s support for Southeast Asian Communist
parties.
In 1974, Malaysia established diplomatic relations with China first, followed
by Thailand and the Philippines in 1975. However, these three countries were
still wary of China. They were worried that China would still support the
Communist militants in their countries; there was the problem of overseas
Chinese as well. In order to dissolve their worries, Chinese leader Deng
Xiaoping visited Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand in November 1978, and
proposed to develop friendly relations with Southeast Asian countries on
the basis of the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence and not to“export
revolution”.Afterwards, the two sides made fruitful cooperation during the
process of solving the Cambodia problem by political means. On the other
hand, China stopped material support to Southeast Asian Communist parties,
promised not to interfere in other countries’ domestic politics with the
reason of overseas Chinese, denied duel citizenship, and encouraged overseas
Chinese to obey the local laws. These policies laid a solid foundation for the
establishment and development of friendly Sino-ASEAN relations.
It is worth mentioning the tortuous Sino-Vietnamese relationship here. The
two countries have a lot of historical connections. Sino-Vietnamese relationship
from the end of World War Ⅱ to the end of the Cold War can be roughly
divided into three periods.
The first period is from 1945 to 1965. In September 1945, under the
leadership by Ho Chi Minh, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam was
established. However, it could not get international recognition. On January
18, 1950, the PRC first recognized and established diplomatic relations with
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