Table Of ContentTHE INTERNATIONAL PHONET IC ALPHABET (revised to 2015)
CONSONANTS (PULMONIC) © 2015 IPA
Bilabial Labiodental Dental Alveolar Postalveolar Retroflex Palatal Velar Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
Plosive
Nasal
Trill
Tap or Flap
Fricative
Lateral
fricative
Approximant
Lateral
approximant
Symbols to the right in a cell are voiced, to the left are voiceless. Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.
CONSONANTS (NON-PULMONIC) VOWELS
Front Central Back
Clicks Voiced implosives Ejectives
Close
Bilabial Bilabial Examples:
Dental Dental/alveolar Bilabial
Close-mid
(Post)alveolar Palatal Dental/alveolar
Palatoalveolar Velar Velar
Open-mid
Alveolar lateral Uvular Alveolar fricative
OTHER SYMBOLS
Open
Voiceless labial-velar fricative Alveolo-palatal fricatives Where symbols appear in pairs, the one
to the right represents a rounded vowel.
Voiced labial-velar approximant Voiced alveolar lateral flap
Voiced labial-palatal approximant Simultaneous and SUPRASEGMENTALS
Voiceless epiglottal fricative Primary stress
Affricates and double articulations
Voiced epiglottal fricative can be represented by two symbols Secondary stress
Epiglottal plosive joined by a tie bar if necessary. Long
Half-long
DIACRITICS Some diacritics may be placed above a symbol with a descender, e.g.
Extra-short
Voiceless Breathy voiced Dental
Minor (foot) group
Voiced Creaky voiced Apical
Major (intonation) group
Aspirated Linguolabial Laminal Syllable break
More rounded Labialized Nasalized Linking (absence of a break)
Less rounded Palatalized Nasal release
TONES AND WORD ACCENTS
Advanced Velarized Lateral release LEVEL CONTOUR
Retracted Pharyngealized No audible release or Ehixgthra or Rising
Centralized Velarized or pharyngealized High Falling
Mid-centralized Raised ( = voiced alveolar fricative) Mid Hrisiginhg
Low Lriosiwng
Syllabic Lowered ( = voiced bilabial approximant) Extra Rising-
low falling
Non-syllabic Advanced Tongue Root Downstep Global rise
Rhoticity Retracted Tongue Root Upstep Global fall
Typefaces: Doulos SIL (metatext); Doulos SIL, IPA Kiel, IPA LS Uni (symbols)
Children’s Speech
An Evidence-Based Approach to
Assessment and Intervention
Sharynne McLeod
Charles Sturt University, Australia
Elise Baker
The University of Sydney, Australia
Boston Columbus Hoboken Indianapolis New York San Francisco
Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto
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A01_SHAR5962_01_SE_FM.indd 1 04/19/16 6:17 PM
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Preface page credit: Image Elise Baker: © The University of Sydney/Louise Cooper.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: McLeod, Sharynne, author. | Baker, Elise author.
Title: Children’s speech : an evidence-based approach to assessment and
intervention / Sharynne McLeod, Elise Baker.
Description: Boston: Pearson, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016006775| ISBN 9780132755962 (alk. paper) | ISBN 0132755963
(alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Speech therapy for children. | Speech disorders in children.
Classification: LCC RJ496.S7 M392 2016 | DDC 618.92/85506–dc23 LC record available at
http://lccn.loc.gov/2016006775
ISBN-10: 0-132-75596-3
ISBN-13: 978-0-132-75596-2
eText
ISBN-10: 0-13-420527-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-420527-4
A01_SHAR5962_01_SE_FM.indd 2 04/19/16 6:17 PM
Brief Contents
Preface xiii
About the Authors xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Chapter 1 Children with Speech Sound Disorders 1
Chapter 2 Classification, Causes, and Co-occurrence 37
Chapter 3 Articulatory Foundations of Speech 60
Chapter 4 Transcription of Speech 84
Chapter 5 Theoretical Foundations of Children’s Speech 134
Chapter 6 Children’s Speech Acquisition 175
Chapter 7 Assessment Preparation, Purpose, and Types 220
Chapter 8 Assessment of Children’s Speech 244
Chapter 9 Analysis of Children’s Speech 288
Chapter 10 Goal Setting 340
Chapter 11 Intervention Principles and Plans 372
Chapter 12 Intervention Procedures and Evaluation 412
Chapter 13 Phonological Intervention Approaches 434
Chapter 14 Articulatory and Motor Speech Intervention Approaches 483
Chapter 15 Evidence-Based Practice in Practice 520
Chapter 16 Individual Children with Speech Sound Disorders:
Case Studies 541
Glossary 570
References 583
Index 622
iii
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Contents
Preface xiii
About the Authors xvii
Acknowledgments xix
Chapter 1 Children with Speech Sound Disorders 1
Overview 2
Defining SSD 4
Prevalence and Impact 9
Prevalence of Communication Disorders 10
Prevalence of children with SSD 10 / Proportion of children with SSD on SLPs’ caseloads 13
Natural History and Long-Term Manifestation of SSD 14
Natural history of SSD 15 / Manifestation of SSD in late childhood 15 /
Manifestation of SSD in adolescence and adulthood 16
Impact and Outcomes of Childhood SSD 17
Longitudinal studies of the impact and outcomes of SSD on children’s lives 17 / Impact of SSD on
children’s lives 19 / Educational impact of SSD 20 / Occupational impact of SSD 23 /
Impact of SSD on children’s families 23
Risk and Protective Factors for SSD 26
Evidence-Based Practice 33
Steps involved in clinical decision-making 35
Chapter summary 36
Suggested reading 36
Application of knowledge from Chapter 1 36
Chapter 2 Classification, Causes, and Co-occurrence 37
Overview 38
Types of SSD in Children 38
Speech sound disorders: Phonology 40 / Speech sound disorders: Motor speech 41
Classification Systems of Children with SSD 46
Speech Disorders Classification System (Shriberg, 1980; 2010a) 46 / Differential Diagnosis System
(Dodd, 1995a, 2005, 2013) 48 / Psycholinguistic Framework (Stackhouse & Wells, 1997) 48 /
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health – Children and Youth Version
(ICF-CY) (WHO, 2007) 50
SSD of Known and Unknown Origins 51
SSD of known origins 52
Co-occurrence of SSD with Other Types of Communication Impairment 56
Co-occurrence of SSD and language impairment 57 / Co-occurrence of SSD and literacy
difficulties 57 / Co-occurrence of SSD and oromotor difficulties 57 / Co-occurrence of SSD and
voice difficulties 58 / Co-occurrence of SSD and stuttering 58
Chapter summary 59
Suggested reading 59
Application of knowledge from Chapter 2 59
v
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vi ContEntS
Chapter 3 Articulatory Foundations of Speech 60
Overview 61
Anatomical Structures for Speech Production and Perception 61
Structures Involved in Speech Production 61
Tongue 63 / Lips 67 / Teeth 68 / Mandible 70 / Hard palate 71 / Soft palate
(Velum) 73 / Nose 74 / Pharynx 75 / Larynx 76 / The respiratory system 77
Structures Involved in Speech Detection 78
Ear 78
Additional Anatomical Structures That Support Perception and
Production of Speech 81
The neurological system 81
Chapter summary 83
Suggested reading 83
Application of knowledge from Chapter 3 83
Chapter 4 Transcription of Speech 84
Overview 85
Transcription of Speech 85
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 88 / Pulmonic consonant chart 90 / Non-pulmonic
consonant chart 95 / Other symbols chart 96 / Diacritics chart 97 / Vowel
chart 98 / Suprasegmentals chart 103 / Tones and word accents chart 105
Extensions to the IPA 105
Phonotactics 106
Consonant clusters 106 / Syllable shapes and word positions 107
Understanding English Consonants Using Knowledge of Anatomy and Auditory Transcription 108
Sagittal diagrams of English consonants 109 / Transverse diagrams of English
consonants 109 / Bilabial plosives /p, b/ 110 / Alveolar plosives /t, d/ 111 / Velar Plosives
/k, ɡ/ 114 / Nasal consonants /m, n, ŋ / 115 / Labiodental fricatives /f, v/ 116 / Dental
fricatives /θ, ð/ 116 / Alveolar fricatives /s, z/ 117 / Postalveolar fricatives /ʃ, ʒ/ 120 / Glottal
fricative /h/ 121 / Alveolar approximant /ɹ/ 121 / Palatal approximant /j/ 123 / Alveolar
lateral approximant /l/ 123 / Labiovelar approximant /w/ 123 / Affricates /ʧ, ʤ/ 124
Chapter summary 125
Suggested reading 125
Application of knowledge from Chapter 4 125
Appendix 4-1. Transcription decision-making tree 126
Appendix 4-2. Inventory of consonants for 25 languages and dialects 127
Appendix 4-3. Extensions to the International Phonetic Alphabet 132
Appendix 4-4. Voice quality symbols 133
Chapter 5 Theoretical Foundations of Children’s Speech 134
Overview 135
Phonology—What Is It? 135
Theoretical concepts: Phones, phonemes, allophones, and minimal pairs 136 / Theoretical
concepts: Features 138 / Theoretical concepts: Naturalness, markedness, and implicational
relationships 145 / Theoretical concepts: Phonotactics 145 / Theoretical concepts:
Sonority 146
Phonological Theories 148
Classic Theories of Phonology 148
Generative phonology, underlying and surface representations, and rules 148 /
Natural phonology and phonological processes 151
Contemporary theories of phonology 159
Nonlinear phonology (based on Bernhardt & Stemberger, 2000 159 / Optimality theory (based on
Dinnsen & Gierut, 2008) 162 / Representation-based accounts of SSD in children 164
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ContEntS vii
Speech Perception 165
How do we perceive speech? 166 / The theoretical relevance of speech perception for children with
SSD 167
Speech Production 168
Phonological planning, motor planning, motor programming, and motor e xecution 168 /
Theories and models of speech production 170
Chapter summary 173
Suggested reading 173
Application of knowledge from Chapter 5 174
Chapter 6 Children’s Speech Acquisition 175
Overview 176
Part 1: Important Issues When Considering Children’s Speech Acquisition 177
Typical versus Acceptable Speech Acquisition 178
Factors influencing typical speech acquisition 179
Theories of Child Development That Have Influenced Our Understanding
of Speech Acquisition 185
Jean Piaget 185 / Lev Vygotsky 186 / Urie Bronfenbrenner 186
Methodological Issues in Studying Speech Acquisition 187
Diary studies 188 / Cross-sectional studies 188 / Longitudinal studies 189
Comparative studies 189 / Summary of Part 1 190
Part 2: Typical Speech Acquisition for English-Speaking Children 191
Speech Acquisition for English-Speaking Infants and Toddlers from Birth to 2 years 191
Oral mechanism 192 / Perception 192 / Crying, vocalization, and
babbling 193 / Intelligibility 194 / Phonetic inventory 194 / Syllable and word shape inven-
tory 195 / Age of acquisition of consonants, consonant clusters, and vowels 196 / Percentage of
consonants, consonant clusters, and vowels correct 196 / Common mismatches 198 / Phono-
logical processes 199 / Syllable structure 199 / Prosody 199 / Metalinguistic skills 200
Speech Acquisition for English-Speaking Preschoolers from 3 to 5 years 200
Oral mechanism 200 / Intelligibility 201 / Phonetic inventory 201 / Syllable and word shape
inventory 202 / Age of acquisition of consonants, consonant clusters, and v owels 202 / Percent-
age of consonants, consonant clusters, and vowels correct 205 / Common mismatches 205 /
Phonological processes 206 / Prosody 207 / Phonological awareness 208
Speech Acquisition for English-Speaking School-Aged Children from 6 years 208
Oral mechanism 208 / Intelligibility 210 / Phonetic inventory 210 / Syllable and word shape
inventory 210 / Age of acquisition of consonants, consonant clusters, and vowels 210 / Percent-
age of consonants, consonant clusters, and vowels correct 211 / Prosody 212 / Phonological
awareness and literacy 212
Part 3: Typical Speech Acquisition for All Children 212
Intelligibility 212 / Phonetic inventory 213 / Syllable and word shape inventory 213 /
Mastery of consonants and vowels 214 / Percentage of consonants, consonant clusters, and
vowels correct 214 / Common mismatches 215 / Phonological processes 215 / Prosody 215
Chapter summary 216
Recommended reading 216
Application of knowledge from Chapter 6 216
Appendix 6-1. Summary of studies of English-speaking children’s speech acquisition 217
Chapter 7 Assessment Preparation, Purpose, and Types 220
Overview 221
Typical Assessments for Children with Suspected SSD 221
Preparation 221
The most important assessment tool: The SLP 222 / Child-friendly assessments 225 /
Family-centered and family-friendly assessments 227 / Assessment contexts 227 /
Collaboration with other professionals 228
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viii ContEntS
Referral and Background Information 228
Case history information 229 / Documenting family history of speech, language, and communi-
cation difficulties 229 / Documenting children’s language use and proficiency 230 / Learning
from those who know the child the best: Parents, grandparents, teachers, siblings, and friends 232
Purposes of Assessment 233
Descriptive assessments 234 / Diagnostic assessments 235 / Intervention planning 235 /
Outcome measurement 235
Types of Assessments 236
Standardized assessments 236 / Informal assessments 237 / Norm-referenced assess-
ments 238 / Criterion-referenced assessments 238 / Screening assessments 239 / Static
assessments 240 / Dynamic assessments 241 / Response to intervention 242
Chapter summary 242
Suggested reading 243
Application of knowledge from Chapter 7 243
Chapter 8 Assessment of Children’s Speech 244
Overview 245
Components of Children’s Speech Assessments 245
Assessment of Intelligibility 245
Rating scales that quantify perceptions of intelligibility 246 / Single-word measures that quantify
intelligible phonetic contrasts 247 / Connected speech measures that quantify word and syllable
identification 248 / Assessment of acceptability and comprehensibility 249
Assessment of Speech Production: Elements 250
Consonants 250 / Consonant clusters 252 / Vowels and diphthongs 253 / Polysyllables 255 /
Prosody 256 / Tones 257
Assessment of Speech Production: Methods 257
Single-word speech assessments 258 / Single-word testing for young children 260 / Connected
speech assessments 261 / Single-word versus connected speech assessments 264 / Assessment of
stimulability 264 / Assessment of inconsistency and variability 265
Assessment of Oral Structure and Function 265
Assessment of Speech Perception 267
Auditory discrimination tasks 267 / Auditory lexical discrimination tasks 268
Assessment of Hearing 269
Assessment of Phonological Processing 269
Phonological access 269 / Phonological working memory: Nonword repetition tasks 270 /
Phonological awareness 270
Assessment of Emergent Literacy, Early Literacy, and Conventional Literacy Skills 271
Assessment of Psychosocial Aspects 272
Assessment of Children’s Communicative Participation 273
Assessment of children’s views of their speech within educational and social contexts 273
Language, voice, and Fluency Assessments 275
Using the ICF-Cy Framework to Scaffold Assessment Planning 276
Strategic Assessments Suited to Children with Different Types of SSD 277
Assessments for Children with Suspected Phonological Impairment 278
Assessments for children with suspected inconsistent speech disorder 279 / Assessments for children
with suspected articulation impairment 279 / Assessments for children with suspected CAS 279 /
Assessments for children with suspected childhood dysarthria 280 / Assessment of SSD for child
with craniofacial anomalies 281 / Assessment of SSD for child with hearing loss 282
Differential Diagnosis and Prognostic Statements 283
Chapter summary 283
Suggested reading 284
Application of knowledge from Chapter 8 284
Appendix 8-1. Assessment plan 285
Appendix 8-2. Assessment plan for Luke 286
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