Child Adoption: Trends and Policies

486 Pages·2009·2.98 MB·English

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USD 58
ISBN 978-92-1-151466-7
Printed at the United Nations, New York
09-65249—March 2010—5,725
[blank page]
ST/ESA/SER.A/292

Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Population Division

Child Adoption:
Trends and Policies

United Nations
New York, 2009
DESA

The Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat is a
vital interface between global policies in the economic, social and environmental spheres
and national action. The Department works in three main interlinked areas: (i) it
compiles, generates and analyses a wide range of economic, social and environmental
data and information on which States Members of the United Nations draw to review
common problems and take stock of policy options; (ii) it facilitates the negotiations of
Member States in many intergovernmental bodies on joint courses of action to address
ongoing or emerging global challenges; and (iii) it advises interested Governments on the
ways and means of translating policy frameworks developed in United Nations
conferences and summits into programmes at the country level and, through technical
assistance, helps build national capacities.

Note

The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not
imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United
Nations concerning the legal status of any country, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

The designations “developed” and “developing” countries and “more developed” and “less
developed” regions are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily express
a judgment about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the development
process.

The term “country” as used in the text of this publication also refers, as appropriate, to
territories or areas.

This publication has been issued without formal editing.

ST/ESA/SER.A/292

UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No. _E_._1_0_.X_I_I_I._4____
ISBNIS 9B7N8- 9020--10--105010406060--70

Copyright  United Nations, 2009
All rights reserved
PREFACE

The Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations
Secretariat is in charge of monitoring population policies in all countries of the world. Since the United
Nations convened its first intergovernmental conference on population in 1974, the Population Division has
been responsible for reviewing and appraising the implementation of the plans or programmes of action
adopted by the United Nations international conferences on population. As part of its work, the Population
Division produces in-depth studies on specific issues related to population policy. This report, focusing on
policies on child adoption and the resulting trends in 195 countries, aims to provide Governments with the
evidence necessary to assess their policies in this area. One of its major conclusions is that available data on
child adoptions have a number of limitations that prevent a thorough assessment of the determinants of the
process and its consequences for the parties involved. The systematic collection and publication of more
detailed data on adoption would provide useful insights about how the process of adoption functions and
would validate measures that the authorities in charge could use to ensure the welfare of adopted children.

The World Population Plan of Action adopted in 1974 at the World Population Conference called for
facilitating child adoption so that involuntarily sterile and sub-fecund couples could achieve their desired
family size. Implicit in this recommendation was the idea that adoption is a means to approximate biological
parenthood for couples who would otherwise be unable to have children. More than three decades later, the
general view is that, in societies where marriage is being increasingly delayed, childbearing is postponed and
levels of biological childlessness are on the rise, increasing numbers of persons are resorting to alternative
means of experiencing parenthood, including through adoption. This report analyses adoption trends in light
of changes in nuptiality and childbearing in order to assess the extent to which the generalized view presented
above holds true.

This study, the first of its kind undertaken by the Population Division, presents comparable
information for 195 countries. The information presented relates to: adoption policies and legislation;
multilateral, regional and bilateral treaties on intercountry adoption; levels and trends of total, domestic and
intercountry adoptions, and data on selected demographic characteristics of the individuals involved in an
adoption, namely, the adopted person, the adoptive parents and the birth parents. The report surveys recent
trends and policies on child adoption while providing the cultural and historical background necessary to
understand differences in country practices.

Acknowledgement is due to Dr. Peter Selman, who contributed background material for several of the
chapters of this study, and to Dr. Robert Gardner, who assisted in editing the publication. Responsibility for
the design, execution and content of this study lies entirely with the Population Division.

This publication, as well as other population information, may be accessed on the Population
Division’s website, at www.unpopulation.org. For further information about this publication, please contact
the office of Ms. Hania Zlotnik, Director, Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs,
United Nations, New York, N.Y. 10017; tel: [phone]; fax [phone].
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CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE........................................................................................................................................................... iii

EXPLANATORY NOTES....................................................................................................................................... xiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...................................................................................................................................... xv

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................................. 1

Chapter

I. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF MODERN ADOPTION LAWS...................................................................... 5
A. Adoption laws in antiquity.......................................................................................................... 5
B. Adoption laws from the Middle Ages to the Modern Era........................................................... 9
C. Modern adoption laws................................................................................................................. 12
D. Adoption laws: present and future challenges............................................................................. 17
E. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 21

II. ADOPTION IN RELIGIOUS LAW AND IN TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES............................................................ 23
A. Adoption and religious law......................................................................................................... 23
B. De facto adoption and fostering in traditional societies.............................................................. 28
C. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 31

III. KEY FEATURES OF MODERN ADOPTION LAWS....................................................................................... 33
A. Legal procedures......................................................................................................................... 33
B. Legal requirements for prospective adoptive parents and adopted persons................................ 36
C. Effects of adoption...................................................................................................................... 45
D. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 48

IV. INTERNATIONAL, REGIONAL AND BILATERAL AGREEMENTS ON INTERCOUNTRY ADOPTION................. 52
A. International agreements............................................................................................................. 53
B. Regional agreements................................................................................................................... 57
C. Bilateral agreements.................................................................................................................... 59
D. Recent initiatives and future challenges related to intercountry adoptions................................. 60
E. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 63

V. LEVELS AND TRENDS IN CHILD ADOPTIONS........................................................................................... 65
A. Levels and trends in the total number of adoptions..................................................................... 66
B. Levels and trends in domestic adoption...................................................................................... 68
C. Levels and trends in intercountry adoption................................................................................. 74
D. Data limitations and steps to harmonize the collection of data on child adoptions..................... 83
E. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 86

VI. THE CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOPTIVE CHILDREN, ADOPTIVE PARENTS AND BIRTH PARENTS................. 89
A. Selected characteristics of adopted children............................................................................... 89
B. Selected characteristics of adoptive parents................................................................................ 98
C. Selected characteristics of the birth mother................................................................................ 104
D. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 105

VII. THE DEMAND FOR AND AVAILABILITY OF ADOPTABLE CHILDREN......................................................... 108
A. The demand for adoption from the perspective of adoptive parents........................................... 108
B. The demographic factors associated with the demand for adoption........................................... 111
C. The availability of adoptable children......................................................................................... 120
D. Summary..................................................................................................................................... 131
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VIII. A FRAMEWORK FOR FURTHERING THE STUDY OF ADOPTION................................................................. 136
A. Framework for the generation and collection of statistics on domestic adoption....................... 137
B. Framework for the collection of statistics on intercountry adoption........................................... 141
C. Conclusion.................................................................................................................................. 148

GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................................................ 149

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................................................... 153

COUNTRY PROFILES.......................................................................................................................................... 167
Afghanistan............................................................................................................................................. 169
Albania.................................................................................................................................................... 170
Algeria..................................................................................................................................................... 171
Andorra.................................................................................................................................................... 172
Angola..................................................................................................................................................... 173
Antigua and Barbuda............................................................................................................................... 174
Argentina................................................................................................................................................. 175
Armenia................................................................................................................................................... 176
Australia.................................................................................................................................................. 177
Austria..................................................................................................................................................... 178
Azerbaijan............................................................................................................................................... 179
Bahamas.................................................................................................................................................. 180
Bahrain.................................................................................................................................................... 181
Bangladesh.............................................................................................................................................. 182
Barbados.................................................................................................................................................. 183
Belarus..................................................................................................................................................... 184
Belgium................................................................................................................................................... 185
Belize....................................................................................................................................................... 186
Benin....................................................................................................................................................... 187
Bhutan..................................................................................................................................................... 188
Bolivia (Plurinational State of)................................................................................................................ 189
Bosnia and Herzegovina.......................................................................................................................... 190
Botswana................................................................................................................................................. 191
Brazil....................................................................................................................................................... 192
Brunei Darussalam.................................................................................................................................. 193
Bulgaria................................................................................................................................................... 194
Burkina Faso............................................................................................................................................ 195
Burundi.................................................................................................................................................... 196
Cambodia................................................................................................................................................. 197
Cameroon................................................................................................................................................ 198
Canada..................................................................................................................................................... 199
Cape Verde.............................................................................................................................................. 200
Central African Republic......................................................................................................................... 201
Chad........................................................................................................................................................ 202
Chile........................................................................................................................................................ 203
China....................................................................................................................................................... 204
Colombia................................................................................................................................................. 205
Comoros.................................................................................................................................................. 206
Congo...................................................................................................................................................... 207
Cook Islands............................................................................................................................................ 208
Costa Rica................................................................................................................................................ 209
Côte d’Ivoire............................................................................................................................................ 210
Croatia..................................................................................................................................................... 211
Cuba........................................................................................................................................................ 212
Cyprus..................................................................................................................................................... 213
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Czech Republic........................................................................................................................................ 214
Democratic People’s Republic of Korea................................................................................................. 215
Democratic Republic of the Congo......................................................................................................... 216
Denmark.................................................................................................................................................. 217
Djibouti.................................................................................................................................................... 218
Dominica................................................................................................................................................. 219
Dominican Republic................................................................................................................................ 220
Ecuador.................................................................................................................................................... 221
Egypt....................................................................................................................................................... 222
El Salvador.............................................................................................................................................. 223
Equatorial Guinea.................................................................................................................................... 224
Eritrea...................................................................................................................................................... 225
Estonia..................................................................................................................................................... 226
Ethiopia................................................................................................................................................... 227
Fiji........................................................................................................................................................... 228
Finland..................................................................................................................................................... 229
France...................................................................................................................................................... 230
Gabon...................................................................................................................................................... 231
Gambia.................................................................................................................................................... 232
Georgia.................................................................................................................................................... 233
Germany.................................................................................................................................................. 234
Ghana....................................................................................................................................................... 235
Greece...................................................................................................................................................... 236
Grenada................................................................................................................................................... 237
Guatemala................................................................................................................................................ 238
Guinea..................................................................................................................................................... 239
Guinea-Bissau.......................................................................................................................................... 240
Guyana..................................................................................................................................................... 241
Haiti......................................................................................................................................................... 242
Holy See.................................................................................................................................................. 243
Honduras................................................................................................................................................. 244
Hungary................................................................................................................................................... 245
Iceland..................................................................................................................................................... 246
India......................................................................................................................................................... 247
Indonesia................................................................................................................................................. 248
Iran (Islamic Republic of)........................................................................................................................ 249
Iraq.......................................................................................................................................................... 250
Ireland...................................................................................................................................................... 251
Israel........................................................................................................................................................ 252
Italy.......................................................................................................................................................... 253
Jamaica.................................................................................................................................................... 254
Japan........................................................................................................................................................ 255
Jordan...................................................................................................................................................... 256
Kazakhstan.............................................................................................................................................. 257
Kenya....................................................................................................................................................... 258
Kiribati..................................................................................................................................................... 259
Kuwait..................................................................................................................................................... 260
Kyrgyzstan............................................................................................................................................... 261
Lao People’s Democratic Republic......................................................................................................... 262
Latvia....................................................................................................................................................... 263
Lebanon................................................................................................................................................... 264
Lesotho.................................................................................................................................................... 265
Liberia..................................................................................................................................................... 266
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya.......................................................................................................................... 267
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Liechtenstein........................................................................................................................................... 268
Lithuania.................................................................................................................................................. 269
Luxembourg............................................................................................................................................ 270
Madagascar.............................................................................................................................................. 271
Malawi..................................................................................................................................................... 272
Malaysia.................................................................................................................................................. 273
Maldives.................................................................................................................................................. 274
Mali......................................................................................................................................................... 275
Malta........................................................................................................................................................ 276
Marshall Islands....................................................................................................................................... 277
Mauritania............................................................................................................................................... 278
Mauritius................................................................................................................................................. 279
Mexico..................................................................................................................................................... 280
Micronesia (Federated States of)............................................................................................................. 281
Monaco.................................................................................................................................................... 282
Mongolia................................................................................................................................................. 283
Montenegro............................................................................................................................................. 284
Morocco................................................................................................................................................... 285
Mozambique............................................................................................................................................ 286
Myanmar................................................................................................................................................. 287
Namibia................................................................................................................................................... 288
Nauru....................................................................................................................................................... 289
Nepal....................................................................................................................................................... 290
Netherlands.............................................................................................................................................. 291
New Zealand............................................................................................................................................ 292
Nicaragua................................................................................................................................................. 293
Niger........................................................................................................................................................ 294
Nigeria..................................................................................................................................................... 295
Niue......................................................................................................................................................... 296
Norway.................................................................................................................................................... 297
Oman....................................................................................................................................................... 298
Pakistan................................................................................................................................................... 299
Palau........................................................................................................................................................ 300
Panama.................................................................................................................................................... 301
Papua New Guinea.................................................................................................................................. 302
Paraguay.................................................................................................................................................. 303
Peru.......................................................................................................................................................... 304
Philippines............................................................................................................................................... 305
Poland...................................................................................................................................................... 306
Portugal................................................................................................................................................... 307
Qatar........................................................................................................................................................ 308
Republic of Korea.................................................................................................................................... 309
Republic of Moldova............................................................................................................................... 310
Romania................................................................................................................................................... 311
Russian Federation.................................................................................................................................. 312
Rwanda.................................................................................................................................................... 313
Saint Kitts and Nevis............................................................................................................................... 314
Saint Lucia............................................................................................................................................... 315
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines............................................................................................................ 316
Samoa...................................................................................................................................................... 317
San Marino.............................................................................................................................................. 318
Sao Tome and Principe............................................................................................................................ 319
Saudi Arabia............................................................................................................................................ 320
Senegal.................................................................................................................................................... 321
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