Chemical Elements in the Environment: Factsheets for the Geochemist and Environmental Scientist

403 Pages·1998·46.952 MB·English

by  Clemens Reimann, Patrice de Caritat (auth.)

Chemical Elements in the Environment
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Clemens Reimann· Patrice de Caritat
Chemical Elements
in the Environment
Factsheets for the Geochemist
and Environmental Scientist
Springer
CLEMENS REIMANN PATRICE DE CARITAT
Section for Geochemistry Cooperative Research Centre
Hydrogeology for Landscape Evolution
Geological Survey of Norway and Mineral Exploration
PO Box 3006-Lade c/o Australian Geological
N-7002 Trondheim Survey Organisation
Norway GPO Box 378, Canberra, ACT 2601
Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-72018-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-72016-1
001: 10.1007/978-3-642-72016-1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Reimann, Clemens, 1952-
Chemical elements in the environment: factsheets for the geochemist and environmental
scientist / Clemens Reimann, Patrice de Caritat.
p. cm.
1. Environmental geochemistry. 1. Caritat, Patrice de. II. Title.
QE516.4.R45 1998 97-39319
551.9--dC21 eIP
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© Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1998
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1998
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PREFACE
CHEMICAL ELEMENTS IN THE ENVIRONMENT
The idea of compiling geochemical and environmental data from existing literature probably
has occurred to many of our readers. We can hardly claim any originality here! In our case,
the constant frustration of searching, sometimes vainly, sometimes repeatedly, for data with
which we could compare the results from a major multimedia, multielement ecogeochemis
try project on the Kola peninsula, was the impetus for commencing this task. Thus, we set
out to collect real data from regional, multielement studies available in existing literature. It
was quite an eye-opener to realise how few such reliable studies exist, how limited in scope
most are (either spatially or in terms of analytical breadth), and how haphazardly organised
some previous attempts at data collation appear.
We have thus tried to collect reliable information on the 92 elements reported to occur in
nature. The resulting factsheets, which form the core of this book, consist of four pages of
data for each element. For each of these elements, we have started the factsheet by giving
essential physico-chemical information, followed by the abundances in typical rocks and
crustal materials, and an indication of which important minerals are likely to contain the
element in question. Subsequently, we have listed the concentrations of each element in
various geochemical or environmental sample media, ranging from rocks, to soils, plants,
waters, and even to human body fluids. As explained below, we have selected carefully the
sources from which we extracted the data. Finally, we close each factsheet with a discussion
of the biological significance, uses, environmental pathways, mobility, action levels,
production and prices of each element. We have done our utmost to reproduce these values
faithfully, and we hope that our readers will inform us of any mistakes or omissions, so that
possible later editions might be improved.
We would also like to mention that while preparing the manuscript for this book we met
several scientists who were reluctant to contribute their data. Their unwillingness, rational as
it may first appear, was generally fuelled by the suspicion that they would not be credited for
their work, whereas we would. It is important to stress here that the purpose of this book is to
prepare a collection of easily comparable data sets. We urge readers wanting to use these
data in their own work to go back to, and cite, the original sources, or at least the contribu
tor's name (e.g., "Manning as cited in Reimann and Caritat"). In any case, it is always
strongly advisable to acquire and consult the original reference to find out more about sam
pling strategy, exact area covered, number of samples collected and analysed for each ele
ment, analytical details, and quality assurance and quality control procedures. The tendency
to "hide" original data presents a real danger to the further development of science. In recent
years, more and more papers have been published without data tables or even without data
statistics. In other cases, only data for the three or four "most important" elements are given,
even though very many more have obviously been analysed for. A good and easily
v
accessible collection of existing data is fundamental to advance the understanding of the
behaviour of chemical elements in the environment, to identify gaps in our knowledge and,
last but not least, to generate new research ideas.
Chemical Elements in the Environment is intended as a workbook for the professional
geochemist and environmental scientist, to which, we hope, they will often refer when
interpreting their own data sets. While working on the manuscript of this book, we also bore
in mind students in natural sciences at the university or college level who would be curious
about the distribution of chemical elements on our planet -e.g. where are the main reservoirs
of beryllium and rubidium? What do we know about tin in the environment? By how many
orders of magnitude can the concentration of uranium in groundwater vary? The answers to
these and many other questions can be found within these pages!
In addition to the libraries of our fellow scientists, we hope that this book will find a place
on the shelf, or preferably in the hands, of legislators in environmental protection or man
agement around the world. We believe that they, perhaps more than anyone else, need a
book like this one to keep in touch with real data and hard facts about the environment.
We hope all readers will find this work useful. However, we cannot accept responsibility
for any consequences resulting from the use of information in this book.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
A book like this cannot be prepared without the help of many individuals. We would par
ticularly like to thank the following colleagues for providing us with their data sets, for other
scientific input and for helpful suggestions: David Banks (Norway), Charles Butt (Australia),
Ulrich Berner (Germany), Matthias Cornelius (Australia), Rudolf Dutter (Austria), Wolfgang
Engel (Germany), Colin Dunn (Canada), Bob Garrett (Canada), Phil Green (Great Britain),
Jo Halleraker (Norway), Gwendy Hall (Canada), Chris Johnson (Great Britain), Kurt Kon
hauser (Great Britain), Bernt Markert (Germany), Joerg Matschullat (Germany), Gerry Moss
(Great Britain), Heikki Niskavaara (Finland), Colin Pain (Australia), Jane Plant (Great Brit
ain), Reijo Salminen (Finland), Tone Smith-Sivertsen (Norway), Ulrich Siewers (Germany),
Brit Lisa SkjelkvaIe (Norway), Ray Smith (Australia), Timo Tarvainen (Finland), and the
Environmental Geochemistry students at Leoben Mining University (Austria).
In addition, at the Geological Survey of Norway, we have benefited from the library ex
pertise of Anne Gaare and Grete Henriksen, from the data proficiency of Jan-Erik Kofoed,
and from the secretarial know-how of Ase Minde.
Many others have contributed with hints, ideas or references. We express our sincere
gratitude to everybody who has helped us, even if not explicitly named here.
Clemens Reimann and Patrice de Caritat
Trondheim, February 1998
VI
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ................................................................. 1
FACTSHEET DESCRiPTION ....................................................... 5
GETIING MORE OUT OF THE FACTSHEETS ........................................ 11
INFORMATION SOURCES ........................................................ 17
REFERENCES ................................................................. 23
FACTSHEETS ................................................... " '" .......... 27
Ac Actinium .................................................................. 28
Ag Silver .................................................................... 30
AI Aluminium ................................................................ 34
Ar Argon ....................................................... , .... '" ., ... 38
As Arsenic ................................................................... 42
At Astatine .................................................................. 46
Au Gold ..................................................................... 48
B Boron ............................................. " ...... '" ............ 52
Ba Barium ................................................................... 56
Be Beryllium ................................................................. 60
Bi Bismuth .................................................................. 64
Br Bromine .................................................................. 68
C Carbon ........... " ... , .. , ............................................... 72
Ca Calcium .................................................................. 76
Cd Cadmium ................................................................. 80
Ce Cerium ................................................................... 84
CI Chlorine .................................................................. 88
Co Cobalt ................................................................... 92
Cr Chromium ................................................................ 96
Cs Cesium .................................................................. 100
Cu Copper .................................................................. 104
Dy Dysprosium .............................................................. 108
Er Erbium .................................................................. 112
Eu Europium ................................................................ 116
F Fluorine ................................................................. 120
Fe Iron ......... " ... , .... , .......... , ..... , ................................ 124
Fr Francium ................................................................ 128
Ga Gallium ................................................................. 130
Gd Gadolinium .............................................................. 134
Ge Germanium .............................................................. 138
H Hydrogen ................................................................ 142
He Helium .................................................................. 146
VII
Hf Hafnium ................................................................. 150
Hg Mercury ................................................................. 154
Ho Holmium ................................................................ 158
Iodine ................................................................... 162
In Indium .................................................................. 166
Ir Iridium .................................................................. 170
K Potassium ............................................................... 174
Kr Krypton ................................................................. 178
La Lanthanum .............................................................. 182
Li Lithium .................................................................. 186
Lu Lutetium ................................................................. 190
Mg Magnesium .............................................................. 194
Mn Manganese .............................................................. 198
Mo Molybdenum ............................................................. 202
N Nitrogen ................................................................. 206
Na Sodium .................................................................. 210
Nb Niobium ................................................................. 214
Nd Neodymium .............................................................. 218
Ne Neon ................................................................... 222
Ni Nickel ............................................................... 226
Np Neptunium ............................................................... 230
o
Oxygen ................................................................. 232
Os Osmium ................................................................. 236
P Phosphorus .............................................................. 240
Pa Protactinium ............................................................. 244
Pb Lead .................................................................... 248
Pd Palladium ................................................................ 252
Po Polonium ................................................................ 256
Pr Praseodymium ........................................................... 260
Pt Platinum ................................................................. 264
Pu Plutonium ................................................................ 268
Ra Radium ................................................................. 270
Rb Rubidium ................................................................ 274
Re Rhenium ................................................................ 278
Rh Rhodium ................................................................ 282
Rn Radon .................................................................. 286
Ru Ruthenium ............................................................... 290
S Sulphur ................................................................. 294
Sb Antimony ................................................................ 298
Sc Scandium ............................................................... 302
Se Selenium ................................................................ 306
Si Silicon .................................................................. 310
Sm Samarium ............................................................... 314
Sn Tin ..................................................................... 318
Sr Strontium ................................................................ 322
Ta Tantalum ................................................................ 326
Tb Terbium ................................................................. 330
Te Tellurium ................................................................ 334
Th Thorium ................................................................. 338
Ti Titanium ................................................................. 342
VIII
TI Thallium ................................................................. 346
Tm Thulium ................................................................. 350
U Uranium ................................................................ 354
V Vanadium ............................................................... 358
W Tungsten ................................................................ 362
Xe Xenon .................................................................. 366
Y Yttrium .................................................................. 370
Yb Ytterbium ................................................................ 374
Zn Zinc .................................................................... 378
Zr Zirconium ............................................................... 382
APPENDIX ................................................................... 387
Table A1 . Conversion between element and oxide masses .............................. 388
Table A2. Conversion between mg, mmol and meq .................................... 392
Table A3. Conversion between selected units ........................................ 396
Table M. Conversion between common concentration units ............................. 398
IX
INTRODUCTION
Chemical Elements in the Environment: is a new book on this topic really needed? At a first
glance one would believe that by now, after more than half a century of research into the
distribution and behaviour of chemical elements in the environment and 20 years after
Bowen's (1979) pioneering book focusing precisely on this topic ("Environmental
Chemistry of the Elements"), we ought to know everything there is to know on the subject.
After all, there are only about 90 chemical elements occurring naturally; it should not be
such a major task to document their occurrence, abundance and distribution within the
different compartments of the ecosystem.
When working with data from the "Kola Ecogeochemistry Project," an international mul
timedia, multielement geochemical mapping programme in the European Arctic (Reimann et
aI., 1998; see also Internet site hup://www.ngu.no/Ko/a). we were often in need of data with
which to compare the Kola results. Many different media were collected in the different
stages of the project, ranging from precipitation (rain and snow), to stream, lake and ground
water, terrestrial moss and other vegetation, and soils and rocks. It was thus necessary to
search beyond the borders of the geosciences when trying to interpret the results. As a gen
eral rule, we were only able to obtain data with relative ease for some ten elements. All
media collected during the Kola Project were, however, analysed for more than 35 elements.
The point was rapidly reached where good, relatively new, multielement data sets suited for
comparison could not be located (though we are certain that excellent data sets exist but have
just not reached the mainstream western publications yet). The only reference values re
maining were then "world averages" for different media as originally given by Bowen
(1979).
It is rarely realised that the values given in these "world average" tables do not originate
from samples systematically collected and analysed by one project group over a sizeable
area, and thus that they do not represent statistically relevant data sets. Usually they are
based on single values, often from very few samples that may again have been taken at
different places somewhere on earth. These results were then collated in retrospect and
purported to represent concentrations for all the elements in the periodic table. A good
example of this practice is the new North Pacific ocean water data set given in the factsheets.
The author quoted as the source here (Nozaki, 1997) assembled these data from no less than
66 different original publications to be able to calculate the concentrations of 95 elements in
"North Pacific ocean water." These original papers, it turns out, often give only one single
value for one element, based on one or a few water samples taken somewhere in the ocean.
The oldest source dates back to 1958, and not even all samples are actually from the North
Pacific. The accompanying depth profiles presented in Nozaki (1997) give a good idea of
how meaningful "world average" ocean water element concentrations are. In conclusion,
many of the values presently used as "world average stream water, ocean water, rocks" etc.
are at best a learned guess as to the range within which an element may occur in these
different media. It is actually quite interesting to compare these "world average" values with
1