Chemical Control: Regulation of Incapacitating Chemical Agent Weapons, Riot Control Agents and their Means of Delivery

395 Pages·2016·1.75 MB·English

by  Michael Crowley (auth.)

Chemical Control
Regulation of Incapacitating Chemical Agent Weapons,
Riot Control Agents and their Means of Delivery
Michael Crowley
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Chemical Control
Regulation of Incapacitating Chemical Agent
Weapons, Riot Control Agents and their
Means of Delivery
Michael Crowley
UniversityofBradford,UK
Palgrave
macmillan
©MichaelCrowley2016
Foreword©AlastairHay2016
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2016 978-1-137-46713-3
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Firstpublished2016by
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ISBN978-1-349-55565-9 ISBN978-1-137-46714-0(eBook)
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Contents
ListofFiguresandTables vi
ForewordbyAlastairHay vii
Acknowledgements xi
ListofAbbreviations xii
1 Introduction 1
2 IncapacitatingChemicalAgentWeapons 9
3 RiotControlAgents 39
4 MeansofDeliveringorDispersingRiotControlAgents 88
5 ApplicationoftheChemicalWeaponsConventionto
ICAWeapons,RiotControlAgentsandRelatedMeansof
Delivery 107
6 ArmsControlandDisarmamentAgreementsApplicableto
ICAWeaponsandRiotControlAgents 134
7 InternationalHumanitarianLawApplicabletoICAWeapons
andRiotControlAgents 152
8 HumanRightsLawApplicabletoICAWeaponsandRiot
ControlAgents 166
9 InternationalCriminalLawApplicabletoICAWeaponsand
RiotControlAgents 190
10 MechanismstoRegulatetheTransferofICAWeapons,Riot
ControlAgentsandRelatedMeansofDelivery 199
11 ApplicationoftheUnitedNationsDrugControlConventions
toICAWeapons 223
12 TheRoleofCivilSocietyinCombatingtheMisuseof
IncapacitatingChemicalAgentsandRiotControlAgents 229
13 ConclusionsandRecommendations 263
Notes 278
Index 372
v
Figures and Tables
Figures
2.1 Biochemicalthreatspectrum 10
2.2 Selectedindicativedrugclassesandchemicalswithpotential
utilityasICAweapons 11
Tables
3.1 ComparativeestimatedtoxicityforhumansofselectedRCAs 40
3.2 AllegedinappropriateuseofRCAsandtheirmeansofdelivery
bylawenforcementofficialsfrom1stJanuary2009to31st
December2013 51
vi
Foreword
Severaltimesoverthelast25yearsIhavehadtoprovideexpertevidencefor
the courts on the effects of exposure to riot control agents. Fortunately, in
allbutoneoftheseinstancesthepersonwhowasaffectedbythechemical
agentsurvivedandwithoutseriousilleffects.Tragically,inoneinstancethe
mandiedandthejuryinthatcaseruledthatdeathwasduetoacombina-
tionofexposuretotheriotcontrolagentCSandtopositionalasphyxia,the
latterbroughtaboutbythewayinwhichseveralpolicemenheldhimonthe
ground.
Findingtheevidencenecessarytomakemyreportsforthesecaseswould
havebeenamuchsimpleraffairifIhadhadaccesstothisbookofMichael
Crowley’s.ThisistheresourceIwouldturntoifIwantedtogetdetailsabout
thetoxicpropertiesofindividualagentsandifIneededsomethingasarcane
asadiscussionontheirshelflife,becausesomepoliceforcewasusingupold
stock.
Butforme,themostdisturbingmaterialMichaelCrowleyhasassembled
isinhisthirdchapter,ontheinappropriateuseofriotcontrolagents.These
agents have been deployed almost universally to assist police forces when
crowdsgetoutofcontrol.Theyareanadditiontothepolice’sarmoury,and
meanttohelpavoidresorttomoreextrememeasuressuchasbatonsorguns.
Inotherwords,thesechemicalagentsareasortofinterfacebetweendoing
nothingandpossiblyshootingtoregaincontrolofthestreets.Becausethey
are so irritant, at very low air concentrations, when anyone is exposed to
themandtheireyesstarttosmartandbreathinghurts,thegeneralreaction
istoleavethesceneandfindsomefreshair.ThisiscertainlyhowIresponded
wheninadvertentlyexposedtoCSinRomemanyyearsagowhenIturneda
cornerandfoundmyselfinacloudofthechemical,dischargedintoagroup
ofdemonstratorsprotestingabouttheneedforabortionlawreform.
Regrettably, many of those enforcing the law use riot control agents in
waysthatwereneverintendedand,insodoing,endangerlives.Ninety-five
countriesaredocumentedinChapter3becausetheyusedriotcontrolagents
inwaysthatwereadirectviolationofhumanrights.Theevidenceforthese
abuses has been collected by many different organizations over the years,
evidence which Crowley has abstracted, detailed and assembled in tabular
form.Underheadingswhichrangefromtortureandill-treatment,through
suppression of assembly, indiscriminate and excessive use, deployment in
enclosedspaces toserious injuryor deaths,thestatisticsmake for grimbut
absolutely essential reading. For the evidence is accumulating that some
form of guidance is urgently needed on how riot control agents are used.
Theabusesareincreasing.Thisisnotwhatwasmeanttohappen.Butunless
vii
viii Foreword
thereisclearguidanceonappropriateuseofriotcontrolagentsanyonewith
a grievance who happens to be in a demonstration may find themselves
opposedincreasinglybylawenforcementofficerswhofeeltheyhaveafree
rein.
This concern is amplified by the evidence that Michael assembles about
delivery systems for munitions containing riot control agents or any other
crowd control chemical. Why would a country wish to have a vehicle-
mounted, automatic grenade launcher that can discharge 200 grenades in
a minute? Just who will be the recipient of such a weapon? We will know
at some point as the launcher is currently being promoted by an ordnance
companyinChina.ButChinaisnotaloneindevelopingthesedeliverysys-
temsthatarereallythepreserveofthemilitary.DetailedinChapter4area
range of “wide area” RCA means of delivery including large calibre mortar
munitions or other projectiles, some weighing many kilograms and which
can be fired over many kilometres. Turkey, Russia, China and the United
States appear to have wanted (or at least to have developed and in certain
casesmarketed)suchdevices.
The military should not be interested in deploying riot control agents
as they are forbidden in armed conflict, as Crowley explains. If not to be
used in wars, however, how does one explain these delivery systems that
candrophugequantitiesofhighlyirritantchemicalsinpreciselocationsin
a matter of seconds? Are there other intentions behind such delivery sys-
tems? Are they meant for those regimes that prop themselves up through
fear or other restrictive measures? Regrettably, because riot control agents
are legal for law enforcement purposes, and law enforcement has not been
adequately defined in the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) which
prohibitschemicalwarfare,certainStatesmayfeelfreetodecidewhatthey
useforcontrollingcrowds.
Another grey area in the CWC is incapacitants. Although these too have
no universallyagreeddefinition,in general theyare regardedas substances
that will cause a prolonged, but non-permanent disability, and they gener-
allyoperatebyaffectingthecentralnervoussystem.Anumberofcountries
areveryinterestedinthesesubstances,whichcametoprominenceinOcto-
ber 2002 when they were used to incapacitate heavily armed Chechen
separatistswhowereholding900peoplehostageinatheatreinMoscow.The
separatists had threatened to kill all the hostages and negotiations to end
thestandoffwerestilldeadlockedafterthreedays.UsingtheMoscowsewer
system, Russian Spetsnaz special forces gained entry to the theatre where
theyreleasedahighlyvolatileanaesthetizingagentthroughtheventilation
systemandintotheseatingareawhereeveryonewasbeingheld.
Toensurerapidincapacitationofthoseseatedfurthestfromtheairvents,
hugequantitiesoftheagentwerereleased.Sedationhappenedfairlyrapidly
for most. Thirty minutes after release of the incapacitant, which was later
identified as derivatives of the anaesthetic opiate fentanyl, special forces
Foreword ix
stormed the building and killed all the separatists. But because this was
carriedoutsosecretly,noneofthoseattendingtothesedatedhostageshad
any idea what had been used. The doctors who treated those affected were
also in the dark. The huge quantities of the chemical used delivered many
timesthelethaldosetothoseseatedclosetotheairvents.Theoutcomewas
inevitable.Onehundredandtwenty-fivediedfromtheeffectsoftheopiate
mixturewhichslowsbreathing,and,inhighdoses,stopsitcompletely.
The fact that the majority of the hostages were saved was viewed by
Russia as an overwhelming successful outcome to the siege. Many other
governmentsthoughtlikewise.Facedwithasimilarsituationtheytooliked
the idea of being able to resort to a chemical that would deliver a rapid
knockout dose to hostage takers. This interest persists. Countries can use
whatever incapacitant they choose if it is for law enforcement. And they
do not have to declare what they have in their policing arsenal. This is a
worrying development and requires international action. The real problem
isindefininglawenforcementandavoidinggraduationintoarmedconflict
whereincapacitantuseisstrictlyforbidden.
Thesearchfortheidealincapacitantison.Thiswouldbeonepossessing
an enormous safety factor – the outcome of which is a dose that will only
incapacitate rather than kill. But it is a fool’s errand. There are no chemi-
calsatpresentthatcomeanywherenearprovidingasufficientsafetyfactor.
Taken together with how incapacitants are likely to be deployed, there are
unlikely to be situations where everyone will survive. Crowley covers this
groundsuperblyinhistext.
What is also impressive about this book is the way in which it has been
assembled. It is designed in such a way that anyone wishing to find ways
ofapplyingsomekindofregulatorymechanismtocontroluseofarmswill
findinvaluable.Crowleyusestheterm‘HolisticArmsControl’.Heenvisages
that it will first involve an exploration of weapons and related technology
thatrequirecontrol,followedbyreviewofapplicablelawsandtreatiesand
thensynthesizingallintoanapproachthatwillfacilitateregulation.
Crowley’s key concerns are the incapacitants and riot control agents. He
providesevidencethroughoutthisbookthatthesesubstancesrequireagree-
mentattheinternationallevelonwhatconstitutesappropriateuse.Butwhat
healsoprovidesisthemechanismtohelpachievethis.Byfurnishinguswith
the properties of these chemicals, how they can be deployed, what treaties
governtheiruseatpresentbutalsohowlawsonhumanrightsandcontrolof
drugsaswellasinternationalhumanitarianandcriminallawcanbebrought
tobear,hemakesthetasksomucheasier.
None of what Crowley would like to see happen will be achieved if no
oneacts.Sohispenultimatechapterishowcivilsociety,youandIinother
words, can work together to bring about change. Civil society is a broad
church and there will be many interest groups. Some will focus on ethical
principles, for example concerning those trying to find ideal incapacitants