Table Of ContentLandscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
Landscape and Urban Planning
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/landurbplan
Characterizing behavioral adaptation to climate change in temperate forests
Alexandra Paige Fischer
SchoolforEnvironmentandSustainability,UniversityofMichigan,440ChurchStreet,AnnArbor,MI48109,UnitedStates
ABSTRACT
Thepotentialimpactsofclimatechangeonterrestrialecosystemsarewellrecognized,andawidevarietyofadaptationmeasureshavebeenproposed.However,little
isknownaboutwhetherandhowadaptationisoccurringamongpeopleintheseecosystems.Understandingadaptationatthelevelofindividuals,includingmembers
ofhouseholdsandextendedfamilies,isespeciallyimportantbecauseitisthelevelatwhichpeoplemostdirectlyexperienceclimatechangeimpactsandengagein
behavioralchange.Iofferaframeworkforcharacterizingtheresponsesofindividuallandownerstoclimatechangeimpactsintermsofadaptationbehavior,and
distinguishingadaptationfromcoping.Theframeworkexpandsexistingtypologiesofadaptationbehaviortoincludeahierarchyofthreeanalyticalunitsofbehavior:
activities,practices,andstrategies.Iillustratetheframeworkbyapplyingittolandowners’responsestoclimatechangeimpactsintemperateforests,abiomethatis
undergoingdramaticchange.Individualsownandrelyonlargeproportionsoflandinmanytemperateforestcountriesandarethereforeexposedandsensitiveto
climatechangeimpacts.Throughmanagement,theyalsoinfluencehowforestsandtheirownwell-beingareaffectedbyclimatechange.Byimprovingcharacter-
izationsofbehavioralresponsestoclimatechange,theframeworkIproposecanhelpresearchersandpractitionersevaluateprogresstowardadaptationwithgreater
rigor.
1. Introduction observation (e.g., individual, vs. community), have limited access to
data sets, and employ indicators that often do not reflect substantive
Climatechangeisoneoftheworld’smostpressingchallenges,one adaptation (Ford & Berrang-Ford, 2016). As such, these research and
that will require society to live with new—and in some cases more policyeffortsriskconflatinglongtermbehavioralchangesthatimprove
hazardous—environmental conditions. Understanding whether and future suitability to the environment (“adaptation”) with short-term
how people adapt to climate change is critical to society’s ability to responses to ward off immediate adverse impacts (often termed
design and evaluate adaptation policies and plans. Understanding “coping”). This ambiguity can render such efforts inefficient and po-
adaptationamongindividualsisespeciallyimportantbecauseitisatthe tentiallycounterproductivebymakingitdifficulttoevaluatewhether
individual level that people most directly experience climate change adaptation (or coping) has occurred. For these reasons, scholars and
impacts and engage in behavioral change. For example, individual practitioners alike have called for more rigorous approaches to char-
landowners, including members of households and extended families, acterizing, monitoring, and evaluating adaptation, with the argument
areoften highly interdependentwiththeecologicalsystemsthat they that clearer conceptual frameworks and more standardized and gen-
manage, directly depending on their home sites, farms, forests, and eralizable research will increase scientific understanding (Ford &
ranches forshelter, food,water, andfiber. The waysin which people Berrang-Ford,2016).
manage their land in response to past climate impacts influence the HereIofferaframeworkforcharacterizingindividualresponsesto
vulnerabilityofecosystemgoodsandservicestofutureimpacts,which climate change in terms of adaptation behavior. The framework ex-
in turn affects their own well-being and need to adapt (Birkmann, pandsexistingtypologiesofadaptationbehaviortoincludeahierarchy
2011). ofthreeanalyticalunitsofbehavior:activities,practices,andstrategies.
Enabling and incentivizing adaptation has become a major policy It provides a structure for classifying climate change responses along
goalaroundtheworld.However,despiteawealthoftheoriesandfra- multiple dimensions and at multiple levels of specificity that would
meworksforcharacterizingadaptation(e.g.,Bassett&Fogelman,2013; make characterizing adaptation behavior more consistent, coherent,
Smit,Burton,Klein,&Wandel,2000;Wiseetal.,2014),understanding and comparable. As background, I begin by reviewing typologies of
ofhowtoevaluateadaptationattheindividuallevelislimited(Ford& adaptationbehaviorthathavebeendevelopedinfieldssuchashuman
Berrang-Ford, 2016; Woodruff & Stults, 2016). At present, efforts to geography,aswellasempiricalresearchpapersthatapplyelementsof
track adaptation lack consistency, comparability, comprehensiveness, these typologies to investigations of behavioral responses to climate
andcoherence(Ford&Berrang-Ford,2016).Policyandresearchefforts change among individuals. I also review the empirical literature on
define adaptation differently, draw on data at incomparable units of behavioral responses to climate change impacts on temperate forests,
E-mailaddress:[email protected].
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.09.024
Received14November2017;Receivedinrevisedform3July2018;Accepted27September2018
0169-2046/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article as: Fischer, A.P., Landscape and Urban Planning, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.09.024
A.P.Fischer Landscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
specifically, and discuss the unique challenges that forests present to Smitetal.(1999).TheLopez-Marrero(2010)studyuses“strategicre-
distinguishing between adaptation and coping. I focus on temperate sponses”torefertolong-termstrategiesthatinvolveaccesstomaterial,
forests because they are a biome that is projected to experience a technological, economic, and institutional resources, and “tactical re-
multitude of severe climate change impacts (Millar & Stephenson, sponses” to refer to short-term actions undertaken shortly before or
2015;Seidletal.,2017)andbecausetheyareownedandmanagedtoa duringhazardoccurrences.Inastudyofurbanhomeowners,Wamsler
large extent by individuals—50% in the USA and Europe (Butler & and Brink (2014) distinguish explicitly between coping practices and
Leatherberry, 2004; Forest Europe, 2011). Finally, I describe the fra- adaptive practices on the basis of their timing (e.g., well in advance,
mework and illustrate it with examples of management in temperate shortly before, during, and following hazard impacts) and objectives
forestsbyindividuals,althoughtheframeworkcanbeadaptedtoother (e.g., hazard reduction and avoidance, vulnerability reduction, pre-
ecologicalsystems(e.g.,farms,rangelands,andurbanareas)andother paredness for response, and preparedness for recovery). Wamsler and
levelsofsocialorganization(e.g.,organizations).Iconcludebyoffering Brink(2014)alsodistinguishbetweenpracticesthatareplannedversus
suggestionsforhowtoincreasetherigorofscholarlyandpolicyefforts unplanned, intentional versus unintentional, and autonomous versus
tounderstandadaptation. supported by formal institutions. In the context of forests, Fischer (in
press)classifiesindividuallandowners’managementstrategiesinterms
2. Currentframeworksforcharacterizingadaptationbehavior ofpurposefulness,timing,andscope.vanGamerenandZaccai(2015)
classifyindividualforestlandownersonthebasisofwhethertheyun-
Several theoretical typologies of adaptation behavior provide gui- dertakeplanned(asopposedtounplanned)adaptiveactionsandaimto
danceforconsideringadaptationatthelevelofindividuals.Onebroad increaseresilience(asopposedtonotadapting).
typology distinguishes adaptation from other behavioral responses to Although studies such as these contribute to scientific under-
climatechange(Fazeyetal.,2010;Smit&Wandel,2006).Althougha standingofbehavioral adaptation toclimatechangeatthe individual
widevarietyofdefinitionsarecurrentlyusedinresearchandpractice, level,asabodyofscholarship,theydonotclassifybehavioralresponses
adaptation tends to be viewed as a long-term shift in behavior that toclimatechangeinconsistentways,potentiallylimitingthecompar-
reduces adverse impacts of environmental change, enables people to ability and coherence of adaptation research (Ford & Berrang-Ford,
take advantage of opportunities, and increases people’s suitability for 2016).Forexample,someofthebehaviorsthatLopez-Marrero(2010)
their environment (Denevan, 1983; McCarthy et al., 2001; Nelson, refer toasadaptation strategies—purchasingwater resistantfurniture
Adger,&Brown,2007;Parry,M.L.,Canziani,O.F.,Palutikof,J.P.,& and rebuilding houses with water resistant materials—are behaviors
Hanson,2007;Smit,Burton,Klein,&Street,1999).Adaptation,inthis thatpeoplecouldundertakeforanynumberofreasons;onlywhenthe
sense,canbedistinguishedfromothertypesofbehavioralresponsesto purposeoftheseactivitiesismadeclear(i.e.,tomitigatefutureflood
climate change. Coping, for example, refers to short-term efforts to hazards) is it apparent that they should be considered adaptation be-
mitigate shocks and stresses and regain stability (Blaikie, Cannon, haviors. Similarly, the crop management, land management, and irri-
Davis,&Wisner,1994;Fazeyetal.,2010;Opiyo,Wasonga,Nyangito, gationmanagementmeasuresdescribedbyEshamandGarforth(2013)
Schilling,&Munang,2015).Copingcanalsoentailmanipulationofan are broad sets of agricultural activities; to consider them adaptation
externalsystemtomakeself-regulationunnecessary(Thomsen,Smith, measures,additionalinformationabouttheirpurpose(i.e.,tomitigate
& Keys, 2012). Maladaptation, on the other hand, refers to efforts to drought and flooding) would be needed. On the other hand, growing
adapt that increase the vulnerability of oneself and others (Barnett & vegetation to reduce landslides and growing vegetation to mitigate
O’Neill,2010;Juhola,Glaas,Linnér,&Neset,2016). urban heat island effects, as described by Wamsler and Brink (2014),
Other theoretical typologies distinguish behavioral responses to haveclearpurposes.Assuch,theyareconsideredadaptationpractices.
climate change on the basis of key attributes (Table 1), such as how
purposefulordeliberatetheyare(e.g.,enactedautonomouslyaspartof 3. Theneedforasystematicapproachtocharacterizing
daily life, at one extreme, versus planned, at the other), their timing behavioraladaptationintemperateforests
(e.g.,howreactiveorproactivetheyarerelativetotheclimatechange
impact), and their scope (e.g., the extent to which they constitutein- Temperateforestsandtheindividualswhomanagetheseforestsare
crementalversustransformationalchange)(Fankhauser,Smith,&Tol, highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Increasing temperatures
1999; Kates, Travis, & Wilbanks, 2012; Nelson et al., 2007; Pelling, and alterations in precipitation patterns are expected to expose tem-
O’Brien,&Matyas,2015;Smitetal.,2000).Theemergingliteratureon perate forests to severe stress and disturbances, such as large-scale
adaptationinthefieldofforestryalsodistinguishesbetweenbehaviors droughts, insect and disease infestations, and wildfires, which could
onthebasisoftheirunderlyinggoalswithregardtomanagingchange ultimately change forest structure and composition and reduce the
(e.g., whether people aim to resist change, be resilient to change, or growthandsurvivalofsomeforesttypesandtreespecies(Allenetal.,
transition to new conditions) (Janowiak et al., 2014; Millar, 2010; Chmura et al., 2011; Dukes et al., 2009; Fettig et al., 2013;
Stephenson, & Stephens, 2007), although there is some debate about Flannigan et al., 2013; Hayhoe, VanDorn, Croley Ii, Schlegal, &
whether resilience and resistance can be considered adaptation goals Wuebbles, 2010; Hubbart, Guyette, & Muzika, 2016; Millar &
(Nelson,2011). Stephenson,2015).Aslong-livedorganismswithrelativelyslowrates
A number of empirical studies employ attributes from theoretical of migration, temperate tree species may be particularly sensitive to
adaptation behavior typologies to describe climate change responses these impacts (Fettig et al., 2013; Kolström et al., 2011; Schoene &
among forest, farm, ranch, and residential landowners—for example, Bernier,2012).
studiesbyBelowetal.(2012);EshamandGarforth(2013);Raymond Individual landowners in the temperate forest biome are exposed
andRobinson(2013);Wheeler,Zuo,andBjornlund(2013);Zhengand andsensitivetotheseimpactsbecausetheymanageasubstantialpro-
Dallimer (2016), Lopez-Marrero (2010), Wamsler and Brink (2014), portionofforestlandareaandrelyontheecosystemgoodsandservices
vanGamerenandZaccai(2015),andGrothmannandPatt(2005).With thoseforestlandsprovide(Fischer&Frazier,2018).Wildfires,storms,
theexceptionofFischer(inpress)andWamslerandBrink(2014),these droughts,andpestanddiseaseoutbreaksmaydegradeforesthealthand
studies refer to all responses as adaptation (i.e., do not distinguish threaten property and timber values on lands owned by individuals.
adaptationfromcoping),andtheyprimarilycharacterizeresponsesas Wildfires, in particular, may directly threaten human life, as well as
autonomous,reactive, and incremental.Severalofthe studiesclassify human health, by releasing into the atmosphere particulates that are
responses according to typologies. In a study of flood-prone coastal harmfultohumans(Liu,Pereira,Uhl,Bravo,&Bell,2015).Declinesin
areas, for example, Lopez-Marrero (2010) distinguishes between tac- certain tree species, such as some economically important oak and
tical and strategic responses to flooding by homeowners, drawing on conifer species (Gómez-Mendoza & Galicia, 2010; Hanewinkel,
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A.P.Fischer Landscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Table1
Dimensionsoftheoreticaladaptationtypologiesandtheirattributes.
Attribute Description Forestryexamples
Purposefulness Autonomous Entailsongoingimplementationofexistingknowledgeandtechniques Thintoreducedroughtstress;constructbreaksinvegetationto
inresponsetoexperiencedclimatechange(Birkmann,2011;Smit preventspreadofwildfires,pests,anddiseases(Schoene&Bernier,
etal.,2000). 2012).
Planned Entailscreationofnewknowledgeandtechniques,andmobilizing Favorspeciesandgenotypesthatareexpectedtobebettersuitedfor
institutionsandpoliciestobuildorstrengthentechnologiesand futureconditions,suchasthosewithwidemoistureandtemperature
infrastructure,oftenasaresultofpolicyintervention(Birkmann, tolerances(Janowiaketal.,2014;Schoene&Bernier,2012).
2011;Smitetal.,2000).
Timing Proactive Entailsbehavioralchangetoreducefuturedamage,riskand Insureforestpropertyagainstpotentialfuturelosses;transitionto
vulnerability,oftenthroughplanning,monitoring,increasing speciesorstandstructuresthatarebetteradaptedtoprojected
awareness,buildingpartnerships,andenhancinglearningorresearch futureconditions;experimentwithnewforestmanagement
(Berrang-Ford,Ford,&Paterson,2011;Smitetal.,2000). practices(Millaretal.,2007;Ogden&Innes,2008).
Reactive Entailsimmediatebehavioralresponsetoregainstability,often Harveststandsfollowingdisturbanceeventsofunexpected
throughspreadingriskandsecuringresources(Berrang-Fordetal., magnitude,severityorintensitytosalvagevalueandreplant(Ogden
2011;Smitetal.,2000). &Innes,2008).
Scope Incremental Entailsmakingsmallchangesincurrentcontextstoavoiddisruptions Shortenrotationintervalstoreducetheprobabilityoflosstostorm
andcontinuingtopursuethesameobjectives(Katesetal.,2012;Park events(Kolströmetal.,2011;Schoene&Bernier,2012;Spittlehouse
etal.,2012). &Stewart,2003);diversifyspeciestospreadrisk;thintoreduce
densityandsusceptibilityofforeststandstostress(Keenan,2015;
Millaretal.,2007).
Transformational Entailsmakingchangesatlargescalesorthatarenewtoaparticular Coordinateeffortstoreducespreadofwildfire,pests,anddiseases
regionorsystem;changingthebroaderbiophysical,social,or acrossownerships;createnewinfrastructureforpreservingtimber
economicsystem(Katesetal.,2012;Parketal.,2012;Pellingetal., harvestedintheaftermathofdiseaseandpestoutbreaks;extend
2015). timehorizonsofmanagement(Kolströmetal.,2011;Spiesetal.,
2010);plantspeciesfromwarmerclimateratherthanusinglocal
seedlings(Millaretal.,2007).
Goal Resistance Bufferorprotectfromchange;takemeasurestopreservestabilityand Createrefugiaforrarespecies;protectforestsfromseverefireand
resistchange(Pellingetal.,2015). winddisturbance;alterforeststructuretoreduceseverityorextent
ofwindandicedamage;establishbreaksinvegetationtodampen
spreadofpests,diseases,andwildfire(Janowiaketal.,2014;Millar
etal.,2007).
Resilience Promotethereturntonormalconditionsafterdisturbancesto Increaseecosystemredundancyacrosslandscapes;favorexisting
preservesystemintegritywhenconditionschange(Carpenter,Walker, genotypesthatarebetteradaptedtofutureconditions;use
Anderies,&Abel,2001;Nelsonetal.,2007;Pellingetal.,2015; landscape-scaleplanningandpartnershipstoreducefragmentation
Walkeretal.,2002). andenhanceconnectivity;restorefiretofire-adaptedecosystems;
maintainandrestorediversityofnativetreespecies(Janowiak
etal.,2014;Millaretal.,2007).
Transition Activelyfacilitateoraccommodatechange;undertakemeasuresthat Facilitatespeciesmigration;establishorencouragenewmixesof
challengethestabilityofcurrentsystems(Lin&Petersen,2013; nativespecies;cultivatedrought-andheat-tolerantspeciesand
Pellingetal.,2015). populations(Janowiaketal.,2014;Millaretal.,2007).
Cullmann, Schelhaas, Nabuurs, & Zimmermann, 2013; Jonsson, spruce,whichissusceptibletostrongwinds(Lidskog&Sjödin,2014).
Appelberg, Harding, & Bärring, 2009; Keenan, 2015; Peltola, Other countries have helped landowners mitigate adverse climate
Kellomäki, & Väisänen, 1999), may challenge forestry operations for changeimpactsbypromotingforestmanagementtoreducewildfirerisk
many landowners (Irland et al., 2001; Lal, Alavalapati, & Mercer, and conserve water (Kolström et al., 2011; Reams, Haines, Renner,
2011).Inaddition,increasedcloudinessmayreduceproductivity,and Wascom, & Kingre, 2005). In the USA, land management and land-
warmer, wetter conditions may complicate thinning, harvesting, and owner assistance agencies have developed education and technology
other forest management activities (Maracchi, Sirotenko, & Bindi, transfer programs to help forestland owners adapt to climate impacts
2005). As a result, landowners may experience declining profits and (Grotta,Creighton,Schnepf,&Kantor,2013;Swanston,C.W.J.,Maria,
land values (Maracchi et al., 2005). Climate change may also create Brandt,L.A.,Butler,P.R.,Handler,S.D.,&Shannon,2016).
opportunitiesforlandownersinsomeareas.Forexample,infareastern An emerging body of empirical research suggests that some in-
deciduousforestsandfarwesternconiferousforestsoftheUSA,where dividualforestlandownershaverespondedtoclimatechangeimpacts
growthiscurrentlylimitedbycold,elevatedcarbondioxidelevelsand through alterations in forest management and planning behaviors. In
warmer temperatures may increase growth and productivity in areas terms of planning practices, owners have gathered information and
withadequatemoisture(Bacheletetal.,2003;Chmuraetal.,2011).As advicetoinformforestmanagementdecisions,monitoredforestsmore
conditions on forestlands change, some forest management practices closely for stress, and purchased insurance against damage (Eriksson,
will no longer be viable, making new approaches necessary (Irland 2014;Fischer,inpress;Sousa-Silva,Ponette,Verheyen,VanHerzele,&
etal.,2001)—thustheneedtorespondand,ifpossible,adapt. Muys,2016;vanGameren&Zaccai,2015).Regardingforestpractices,
Recognizing that climate change will increasingly impact forest- ownershaveplantednewspeciestoestablishmixedstands;cultivated
landsownedbyindividuals,naturalresourceagencieshavedeveloped speciesandvarietiesthatarebetteradaptedtochangingsiteconditions;
policies and outreach programs to help landowners reduce adverse shifted the timing of planting, thinning, and pruning to ensure more
impactsandtakeadvantageofopportunitiesthatchangingconditions favorableconditionsforforestryoperations;shortenedrotationstore-
might bring. In the aftermath of a hurricane that felled millions of ducechancesoflosstostorms,wildfires,andotherevents;andthinned
conifertreesinSweden,forexample,thatcountry’sForestAgencyen- standstoreducestressfromdroughtandwindandtomitigatetherisk
couragedforestlandownerstoreducefuturevulnerabilitybyharvesting ofwildfire(Blennow,2012;Eriksson,2014;Fischer,inpress;Lawrence
onshorterrotations,increasingregenerationharvests,thinningatear- & Marzano, 2014; Sousa-Silva et al., 2016; van Gameren & Zaccai,
lier points in time, and replanting with broadleaf species instead of 2015).
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A.P.Fischer Landscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Based on theoretical typologies, the practices that owners have better adapted to future climate conditions (Eriksson, 2014; van
undertakeninthesestudieslargelycomposestrategiesthatreflectau- Gameren&Zaccai,2015).Moreoften,however,landownershaveap-
tonomous, rather than planned, responses to climate change. Owners pearedtoresistclimatechangeimpactsbyprotectingtheirforestsand
have employed experience-based, practical, and embodied knowledge themselves from losses caused by storms, drought, and wildfires
over theoretical knowledge (e.g., projected climate change impacts) throughthinning,earlyharvestandinsurance(Eriksson,2014),andby
whenmakingdecisions(vanGameren&Zaccai,2015),andtheyhave replantingwithspecieswithhighvaluesincurrentmarketsratherthan
implemented existing knowledge and techniques to reduce the vul- potentialfuturemarkets(LawrenceandMarzano2014).
nerabilityoftheirforeststostressors.Forexample,theyhavediversi- Althoughtheempiricalresearchonclimatechangeadaptationamong
fied species and shortened harvest rotations to reduce the chance of individual forestland owners suggests that owners are responding to
singular losses to storms, droughts, and diseases, and they have per- climate change, it is difficult to judge whether owners’ behavioral ad-
formed forestry activities earlier in the winter to avoid having their justments constitute long-term behavioral changes that increase their
accesstotheforestpreventedbyearlythaws(Blennow,Persson,Tomé, suitability to the environment or temporary adjustments that ward off
& Hanewinkel, 2012; Eriksson, 2014; Fischer, in press; Sousa-Silva immediateadverseimpacts.Inotherwords,withtheexceptionofFischer
etal.,2016;vanGameren&Zaccai,2015).Studieshavenotprovided (in press), operational definitions of adaptation do not distinguish be-
evidence of owners creating new knowledge and techniques or mobi- tween adaptation in the strict sense and other forms of behavioral re-
lizing institutions and policies to create new technologies or infra- sponse,suchascoping.Suchdistinctionsareimportantinthecontextof
structure. temperate forests because many forest management activities can con-
Both proactive and reactive adaptations are evident in studies of stituteeitheradaptationorcopingdependingonhowtheyareused.
individual forestland owners (Eriksson, 2014; Fischer, in press), al- Forexample,thinningbrushandsmalltreesfromforeststandsare
though studies more frequently document reactive approaches, such activities that individual landowners might use to manage forests in
harvestingandreplantingtreesdamagedbywildfires,pestanddisease landscapesthatareadaptedtofrequent,low-severityfireasanatural
incursions, or wind events (Lidskog & Sjödin, 2014), than proactive disturbanceprocess(Fischer,2011).Butforestlandownersmaythinas
approaches. Diversification of species, replacement of vulnerable spe- partofroutineforestmanagementoperationstoreducestressandin-
cieswithmorestress-tolerantspecies,adjustingstandstructurethrough crease vigor (autonomous), or as part of novel designs developed
thinning, increasing spacing of seedlings to reduce susceptibility to through global syntheses of research and practice (planned). Land-
futurewindstormsanddrought,andpurchasinginsurancetomitigate ownersmayalsothinafterexperiencingafireandsuddenlybecoming
potential losses are some examples of proactive forest management aware of fire risk (reactive) or after educating themselves about the
practicesthatforestlandownershaveusedtorespondtoclimatechange possibilityoffuturefiresinawarmer,drierclimate(proactive).Land-
(Blennow & Persson, 2009; Eriksson, 2014; Fischer, in press; Sousa- owners may thin more stands on their own properties in slightly dif-
Silvaetal.,2016;vanGameren&Zaccai,2015).However,theproac- ferentormoreaggressivewayseachyear(incremental)orparticipatein
tiveapproachofexperimentationhasbeenabsentfromtheliteratureon large-scale coordinated efforts with other landowners to prepare a
individualforestlandowners,withtheexceptionofonestudyinwhich sharedlandscapeforthereintroductionoffireasanaturaldisturbance
landownersexploredthecultivationofspeciesfromotherregions(van process(transformational).Moreover,thinningisanactivitythatcould
Gameren&Zaccai,2015). beusedtopursuemultiplegoals,someofwhichmaybemoreadaptive
Despite recognition of the potential benefits of managing stressed thanothers.Forexample,landownersmaythintomakestandsoftrees
forestsonlargespatialscalesandlongtimehorizonsandthroughco- less prone to mortality during wildfires (resistance), minimize loss in
ordinationacrossorganizationalscales(Fischer,inpress;vanGameren theeventofafiresothatstandscanbounceback(resilience),orpre-
& Zaccai, 2015), the published literature does not document such pareforestsforanerainwhichforestfireswilloccurmorefrequently
transformational responses among individual forest landowners in re- andwithgreaterseverity(transition).Onlywhenviewedcollectively,
sponsetoclimatechangeimpacts.Infact,privatelandownersinastudy willtheseattributesindicatewhetherlandownersarethinningaspart
in the Pacific Northwest region of the USA pointed out that adapting oflong-termeffortstotransitiontoaneraofmorefrequentandsevere
managementpracticesforclimateprojectionsmanydecadesinthefu- wildfires (e.g., resetting conditions so fires can burn without cata-
ture was at odds with the time scale of forest management that they strophicconsequences)(adaptation)oraspartofshort-termeffortsto
wereusedto,whichrangedfromafewyearstodecades(Grottaetal., minimizeimmediateadverseimpacts(e.g.,createconditionsthatmake
2013).Instead,ownershavemadeincrementalchangestoforestman- iteasiertosuppressfiresfromburning)(coping).
agement, implementing management actions intended to avoid dis- Furthercomplicatingdistinctionsbetweenadaptationandothertypes
ruptionsofsystemsattheircurrentlocations.Landownershavetended of response, many forest management activities can exacerbate or ame-
touserisk-spreadingstrategies,suchasdiversifyingspeciestoincrease liorate climate change impacts (i.e., be adaptive or maladaptive) de-
thechanceofsomespeciesthrivingunderfutureconditions,thinningto pendingonthespatialandtemporalscaleatwhichtheyareobserved.By
reducedensityandthereforethesusceptibilityofforeststandstostress, suppressingfires,forexample,alandownermayprotecthisorherown
and shortening rotation intervals to reduce the probability of loss to parcelbutalsoallowflammablevegetationtocontinuetoaccumulateon
storm events (Blennow et al., 2012; Eriksson, 2014; Fischer, in press; thatparcel,creatingafirehazardthat,ifignited,couldspreadtoadjacent
Lawrence & Marzano, 2014; Sousa-Silva et al., 2016; van Gameren & landsandadverselyaffectneighbors(maladaptation).Similarly,firesup-
Zaccai, 2015). These responses encompass no-regrets actions that re- pression can be an advantageous practice for individuals who seek to
ducethevulnerabilityofforeststoclimatevariabilityandnon-climate protecthomes,timber,andotherassetsintheshortterm.Butovertime,as
risksingeneral(vanGameren&Zaccai,2015). flammablevegetationaccumulatesinawarmingclimate,suppressingfire
The three theoretical goals of adaptation—resistance, resilience, acrosslargeareascancreaterisksoflarge-scaledestructivewildfireevents
and transition—are evident, to some extent, in the literature on in- (Fischeretal.,2016;Moritzetal.,2014).
dividualforestlandowners.Forexample,ownershavepromotedadi- Because the adaptiveness of many forest management activities is
versityofspeciesandstandstructurestoimprovetheirforests’abilityto relative to the ways in which landowners implement them, the goals
bounce back (i.e., be resilient) after storms, drought, and pest and theyserve,andthespatialandtemporalscalesonwhichtheyareob-
disease outbreaks (Fischer, in press; van Gameren & Zaccai, 2015). served,rigorousapproachesareneededforcharacterizingforestman-
Landownershavealsoengagedinmanagementapproachesthatcould agementactivitiesintermsofadaptationbehavior.Tobevalidinterms
accommodate changing growing conditions and stressors (i.e., enable of adaptation behavior, forest management activities must be char-
transition), for example, by replacing tree species with other, more acterized in consistent, comparable, and coherent ways (Ford &
droughtandstormhardynativeandexotictreespeciespresumedtobe Berrang-Ford,2016).
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A.P.Fischer Landscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
Response type Coping Adaptation
Purposefulness Autonomous Planned
Timing Reactive Proactive
Scope Incremental Transformative
Goal Resistance Resilience Transition
Strategy 1 Strategy 2
Strategies
Practices Practice 1 Practice 2 Practice 3 Practice 4
Activities Activity 1 Activity 2 Activity 3 Activity 4 Activity 5 Activity 6
Fig.1.Frameworkforcharacterizingbehavioraladaptationclimatechange.
4. Amorerigorousframeworkforcharacterizingbehavioral topestsanddiseasesmaybothentailthinning.Practicescanalsoentail
adaptationtoclimatechange activities that run counter to the purpose ofanother practice. For ex-
ample, irrigating stands to reduce susceptibility to drought can also
The framework I propose entails, as a first step, classifying beha- promotethegrowthofflammablevegetationthatfuelswildfires.
vioralresponsestoclimatechangeintoahierarchyofthreecategories Individuals employ practices as part of behavioral strategies. For
ofbehavior:activities,practices,andstrategies(Fig.1).Activities,and example, as wildfires and pest and disease outbreaks become more
thepracticestheycompose,arethemostbasicanalyticalunitsofsocial expansiveunderfutureclimatechange,landownersmaymanageforests
behavior (Schatzki, 1997). Practices are patterned and routinized be- more strategically across larger areas by coordinating activities with
haviorsdrivenbypurposesornorms(Giddens,1979,1989;Reckwitz, neighbors, instead of managing independently on a parcel-by-parcel
2002). Activities are the means through which people implement level (Fischer et al., This Issue). They may also develop longer-term
practices;theirmeaningderivesfromtherulesandnormsthatgovern planstopreparetomanagedifferentlyifconditionschange(e.g.,pests
the practices they compose (Schatzki, 1997). Individuals employ ac- become worse). As such, they may exhibit planned and proactive
tivitiesandpracticesaspartofstrategies,whicharethemechanismsor adaptationratherthanautonomousandreactiveadaptation(Table1).
processes governing the relationship between the practices and the Managing on larger spatial scales may also be transformative if it in-
goalstheyserve.Inasecondstep,theframeworkentailscharacterizing volvesthecreationofnewinstitutionsformanagement.Alternatively,
behavioral strategies according to key attributes: purposefulness, under expectations of higher temperatures and less precipitation,
timing,scope,andgoals(Fig.1).Inathirdstep,theframeworkentails landownersmaychoosetoreducetheprobabilityandseverity(risk)of
considering response strategies on a spectrum between coping and stressors by thinning out dense trees and shrubs on their properties
adaptation(Fig.1). through which pests and diseases may spread and conducting con-
Inthecontextoftemperateforests,theframeworkIproposerefers trolledburnstokeeptheirforestsfreefrombuildupsofunhealthyve-
to specific forest management treatments or interventions that in- getation. Such strategies would be characterized as autonomous, re-
dividualscan undertakeasactivities. Activitiescan beactive,suchas active,andincrementalyetaimedatresilience.Landownersmayalso
thinning,harvesting,andfertilizing,orpassive,suchasnotharvesting diversify species to create stands better suited tochanging conditions
attheoriginallyplannedinterval,wheretheabsenceofanintervention (i.e., spreading risk). In this way, they may exhibit autonomous and
ortreatmentcanbetheactivity.Activitiescaninvolvephysicallyma- proactiveyetincrementaladaptation,alsoaimedatresilience(Table1).
nipulating vegetation and soils, or they can involve other types of Alternatively, some landowners may prefer to prevent loss by doing
processes, such as planning or communication. Multiple activities everythingpossibletoprotectexistingtreesorspeciesthatareadapted
compose a practice, suchas controlling pestsand diseases ina stand, to changing conditions (e.g., existing drought-adapted species). This
whichmayinvolveactivitiessuchassprayingpesticides,pruninglimbs, would be an example of autonomous and proactive yet incremental
andthinningtrees;reducingwildfirerisk,whichmayinvolvepruning, adaptation,ratherthanreactiveadaptation(Table1).Theattributesof
thinning,harvesting,andburningexcessvegetation;andcoordinating behavioralstrategies—purposefulness,timing,scope,andgoals—reveal
management with neighbors, which may involve communicating at how individuals negotiate trade-offs associated with continuing to
meetingsanddevelopingplans.Differentpracticescanbecomposedof manage forests under new environmental conditions, altering the ad-
the same activities—for example, reducing the risk of wildfire on a vantages and disadvantages of different types of adaptation behavior
forestedpropertyandreducingthesusceptibilityofaforestedproperty such that certain attributes become more beneficial while others
5
A.P.Fischer Landscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
become less so (Hamilton, Fischer, Guikema, & Keppel-Aleks, 2018). individualadaptationbehavior.Moreover,applyingsuchaframework
Landowners who undertake planned, proactive, and transformational to empirical research would help generate a comprehensive body of
responses to climate change may perceive that transitioning to new empirical data about individual adaptation to climate change, which
conditions will be more advantageous rather than resisting change would allow for comparison across different cases of climate change
(Table1). response.
I argue that classifying climate change response behaviors by The framework I propose could also help distinguish adaptation
commensurate units within a hierarchy of behaviors and along di- fromcoping.Inthecontextoftemperateforests,behaviorsthatexhibit
mensions of attributes of behavioral strategies would increase the adaptationcouldincludeadaptivemanagementstrategiesthatfacilitate
consistency, comparability, and coherence—and therefore the overall species migration, allow natural regeneration after disturbance, and
rigor—ofeffortstocharacterizebehavioralresponsestoclimatechange. increaseecosystemredundancyacrossthelandscape(Janowiaketal.,
Clearly distinguishing between commensurate components of beha- 2014; Keenan, 2015; Millar et al., 2007). These behaviors would fall
vior—activities,practices,andstrategies—makesitpossibletofocuson towardtheplanned,proactive,transformational,andtransitionendsof
consistentandcomparablevariablesthatareimportantforevaluating thedimensionsofpurposefulness,timing,scope,andgoals.Coping,on
adaptation coherently. Locating landowners’ strategies along dimen- theotherhand,couldbeexhibitedbyeffortstocreaterefugiaforrare
sionsofpurposefulness,timing,scope,andgoalsprovidesinsightinto species,harvestsusceptiblespeciesbeforetheysuccumbtodisease,thin
the way they may be adapting to climate change, assuming they suc- standstopreventfirefromascendingtrees(Janowiaketal.,2014),and
cessfullyreduceadverseimpacts,takeadvantageofopportunities,and suppresswildfire,orcreatefuelbreakssofirescannotburnintostands
increasetheirsuitabilitytonewenvironmentalconditions.Inthecase (Spiesetal.,2010).Thesebehaviorswouldfalltowardtheautonomous,
oftemperateforests,landownersmayengageinactivitiesandpractices reactive,incremental,andresistanceendsofthedimensionsofpurpo-
as part of behavioral strategies that reflect autonomous, reactive, in- sefulness, timing, scope, and goals. In lieu of measuring outcomes of
cremental,andresistantadaptation(e.g.,preventingchangeincurrent behavioralchange(e.g.,improvedsuitability),thegoal,orintention,of
forestconditionsbyreducingstressthroughfertilizationandirrigation), abehavioralchangecanbeusedasanindicatorofadaptation(Thomsen
aswellasbehavioralstrategiesthatexhibitplanned,proactive,trans- et al., 2012). For example, whether owners aim to be better off by
formative,andtransitionaladaptationbehavior(e.g.,coordinatingwith thinning, or at least not be worse off, can be considered an indicator
neighborstomanageforestsonthelargespatialandtemporalscaleson thattheirbehavioraladjustmentconstitutesadaptation.Throughstra-
whichstressorssuchaswildfireandpestsanddiseasesoccur)(Fig.2). tegiesthatreflectdifferentdimensionsoftheoreticaladaptationbeha-
Characterizingadaptationinthisway—intermsofsetsofactivitiesthat vior,landownersexhibittheirorientationsaroundcopingandadapta-
composepracticesthatindividualsuseaspartofstrategiestopursuethe tion:whethertheyareintendingtoreduceadverseimpactsorlearning
goalofincreasedsuitabilitytoachangingenvironment—facilitatesthe toliveundernewconditionssotheycanbeatleastaswelloff,ifnot
identificationofanestedsetofvariablesthatcanbeusedtoevaluate betteroff,inachangingclimate(Fig.2).
Response type Coping Adaptation
Purposefulness Autonomous Planned
Reactive Proactive
Timing
Scope Incremental Transformative
Goal Resistance RReessiilliieennccee Transition
Prevent loss of Diversify forest Reduce risk Manage on
Strategy current species and composition and of larger spatial
structural conditions structure to spread risk stressors and temporal
scales
Protect existing Cultivate hardy Controlpest and Reduce flammable Coordinate
Practice
trees from stress species disease infestations vegetation with neighbors
Activity Fertilize Irrigate Plant Spray Prune Thin Harvest Communicate Plan
Fig.2.Frameworkforcharacterizingbehavioraladaptationclimatechangewithexamplesfromtemperateforests.
6
A.P.Fischer Landscape and Urban Planning xxx (xxxx) xxx–xxx
5. Conclusion Birkmann,J.(2011).First-andsecond-orderadaptationtonaturalhazardsandextreme
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Acknowledgements privateforestlandowners.LandscapeandUrbanPlanning.doi:https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.landurbplan.2018.02.004.
Fischer,A.P.,&Frazier,T.G.(2018).Socialvulnerabilitytoclimatechangeintemperate
I acknowledge support from USDA National Institute of Food and forestareas:Newmeasuresofexposure,sensitivity,andadaptivecapacity.Annalsof
Agriculture McIntire Stennis project 1011135 and Forest Service theAmericanAssociationofGeographers,108(3),658–678.https://doi.org/10.1080/
Northern Research Station, and thank Matt Hamilton, Michal Russo, 24694452.2017.1387046.
Fischer,A.P.,Spies,T.A.,Steelman,T.A.,Moseley,C.,Johnson,B.R.,Bailey,J.D.,...
Aniseh Bro, and Garrett Powers for reviewing previous drafts of this Bowman,D.M.J.S.(2016).Wildfireriskasasocioecologicalpathology.Frontiersin
article. EcologyandtheEnvironment,14(5),276–284.https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1283.
Flannigan,M.,Cantin,A.S.,deGroot,W.J.,Wotton,M.,Newbery,A.,&Gowman,L.M.
(2013).Globalwildlandfireseasonseverityinthe21stcentury.ForestEcologyand
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