Table Of ContentChallenges for Journalism Education and
Training in a Transforming Society: A Case
Study of Three Selected Institutions in Post-
1994 South Africa
by
Bevelyn Dube
Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the
Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences at
Stellenbosch University
Promoter: Prof. Lizette Rabe
December 2013
Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za
Declaration
By submitting this dissertation electronically, I declare that the entirety of the work contained
therein is my own, original work, that I am the sole author thereof (save to the extent
explicitly otherwise stated), that reproduction and publication thereof by Stellenbosch
University will not infringe any third party rights and that I have not previously in its entirety
or in part submitted it for obtaining any qualification.
December 2013
Copyright © 2013 Stellenbosch University
All rights reserved
Stellenbosch University http://scholar.sun.ac.za
Abstract
This study investigated the challenges for journalism education and training (JE&T) in a
post-1994 transforming South Africa. Prior to 1994, South Africa had three distinct university
systems with different ideological orientations, namely historically Afrikaans-language
universities, historically English-language universities, and historically “black” universities.
The consequence of these orientations in the university system caused a paradigmatic schism
in the field of JE&T. The advent of democracy in 1994 necessitated the questioning of this
division in higher education. One could assume that there was need to transform the JE&T
curricula so that it could address the challenges of a society in transformation. This study,
therefore, aimed to establish whether JE&T curricula in three selected tertiary institutions in
post-1994 South Africa have transformed in line with the transformation process in the
country. The post-colonial theory, developmental journalism model and Ubuntu philosophy
were deemed the most appropriate theoretical points of departure from which to analyse the
curricula. A collective case study was used as a research design. To collect data, a mixed-
method approach, which utilised both qualitative and quantitative approaches, was used.
Qualitative data were collected through use of programme documents from the selected
journalism tertiary institutions and a semi-structured questionnaire, which was distributed to
programme coordinators. Quantitative data were obtained through the structured
questionnaire which was completed by students in the selected programmes. The qualitative
data obtained were analysed using qualitative content analysis, while quantitative data were
analysed using the statistical package SPSS version 18. The data were then analysed and
discussed in terms of the selected theories. The analysis revealed that the three programmes
are highly dependent on Western epistemologies. The programmes have a close relationship
with the media industry, a relationship which at times can be a double-edged sword. The
findings also show that the programme coordinators of these programmes are not averse to
the transformation of curricula provided the process takes into cognisance Western
epistemologies. The results also showed that in terms of gender and race, transformation has
either been insignificant or non-existent. Lastly, all three programmes do not teach their
students to report in indigenous languages. The final conclusion of the study is that JE&T in
the selected programmes are not yet addressing the challenges of a transforming post-1994
South Africa.
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Opsomming
Hierdie studie het die uitdagings aan joernalistieke opvoeding en opleiding (JO&O) in ’n
post-1994, transformerende Suid-Afrika ondersoek. Voor 1994 het Suid-Afrika drie
verskillende universiteitstelsels met verskillende ideologiese oriëntasies gehad, naamlik
historiese Afrikaanse universiteite, historiese Engelse universiteite en historiese “swart”
universiteite. Die gevolg van hierdie oriëntasies in die universiteitstelsel het ’n
paradigmatiese skisma in die veld van JO&O veroorsaak. Die koms van demokrasie in 1994
het die bevraagtekening van hierdie skeiding in hoër onderwys genoodsaak. Die aanname kon
gemaak word dat daar ’n behoefte was om JO&O kurrikula te transformeer sodat dit aan die
uitdagings van ’n samelewing in oorgang kon beantwoord. Hierdie studie het dus beoog om
vas te stel of JO&O kurrikula in drie geselekteerde tersiêre inrigtings in ’n post-1994 Suid-
Afrika saam met die landgetransformeer het. Die postkoloniale teorie, ontwikkelings-
joernalistiek-teorie en Ubuntu-filosofie is geoordeel om die mees toepaslike teoretiese
vertrekpunte te wees om die kurrikula mee te evalueer. ’n Kollektiewe gevallestudie is as
navorsingsontwerp gebruik. As dataversamelingsmetodologie is ’n gemengde metodes-
benadering gevolg, waarin kwalitatiewe en kwantitatiewe metodologieë gebruik is.
Kwalitatiewe data is deur’n analise van die programdokumente van die geselekteerde tersiêre
instellings versamel, asook deur ’n semi-gestruktureerde vraelys aan die
programkoördineerders. Kwantitatiewe data is verkry danksy ’n gestruktureerde vraelys wat
deur studente in die onderskeie programme voltooi is. Die kwalitatiewe data is geanaliseer
deur kwalitatiewe inhoudsanalise, terwyl die kwantitatiewe data geanaliseer is deur die
statistiese pakket SPSS weergawe18. Die data is daarna aan die geselekteerde teorieëgetoets
en daarvolgens geëvalueer. Die analise het getoon dat die drie programme sterk steun op
Westerse epistemologieë. Die drie programme het stewige verhoudings met die mediabedryf,
’n verhouding wat soms ’n tweesnydende swaard kan wees. Die bevindinge toon ook dat die
koördineerders van die programme nie onwillig oor die transformasie van kurrikula is nie,
met dien verstande die proses neem Westerse epistemologieë in aanmerking. Die resultate het
ook aangetoon dat transformasie onbeduidend of nie-bestaande was in terme van geslag en
ras. Die drie programme bied ook geen onderrig in inheemse Afrika-tale aan nie. Die finale
slotsom van die studie was dat JO&O in die geselekteerde programme nog nie die uitdagings
van ’n transformerende post-1994 Suid-Afrika aanspreek nie.
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Acknowledgements
My sincerest gratitude goes to God the Almighty for enabling me to complete this study. To
God the glory.
On a professional level, I would like to express my gratitude and heartfelt appreciation to my
supervisor, Professor Lizette Rabe, for her guidance, patience, encouragement and
professionalism throughout this study. Most of all, thank you for being such a wonderful role
model.
I would also like to thank most sincerely Mr. Rod Amner, Dr. Gabriël Botma and Dr. Pedro
Diederichs of Rhodes University, Stellenbosch University and Tshwane University of
Technology respectively, for the wonderful support they gave me throughout this study. I
could not have done this study without their sterling support.
I am greatly indebted to Ms. Elizabeth Newman, the secretary in the Department of
Journalism at Stellenbosch University, for mobilising the 2010 BPhil students and
encouraging them to answer the questionnaire. Thank you, Elizabeth.
I would also like to thank the 2010 PGDip (Rhodes University), BPhil (Stellenbosch
University) and BTech (Tshwane University of Technology) class for taking time to complete
the questionnaires for this study. I am grateful to you all.
I am grateful to the University of Venda for the research funds provided, as well as the study
leave granted to enable me to carry out this study. Thank you.
I am also greatly indebted to Sevious Guvuriro, who helped me capture and analyse my data
and Butho Ndhlovu, who formatted the thesis. Thank you.
Most of all I would like to say thank you to my family and friends for their unstinting support
throughout this study. Special mention goes to my four children, Langiso, Stacy, Mgcini and
Nhlalo, who have gone through every challenge imaginable with me. Thank you so much.
You are my pillars of strength.
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Table of Contents
Declaration................................................................................................................................. i
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii
Opsomming ............................................................................................................................. iii
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. iv
Table of Contents ..................................................................................................................... v
List of Acronyms .................................................................................................................... xv
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... xvi
List of Addendums ............................................................................................................. xviii
Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Context: Journalism education and training (JE&T) in South Africa ..................................... 1
1.2 The post-1994 Department of Education context ...................................................................... 3
1.3 Preliminary study and rationale ................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Problem statement and focus........................................................................................................ 7
1.5 Goals, theoretical points of departure and research questions ................................................. 7
1.5.1 Goals .......................................................................................................................... 7
1.5.2 Theoretical points of departure .................................................................................. 8
1.5.3 Central research question ........................................................................................... 9
1.5.4 Sub-questions............................................................................................................. 9
Sub-questions can be formulated as follows: ..................................................................... 9
1.6 Research design and methodology ............................................................................................ 10
1.6.1 Research design ....................................................................................................... 10
1.6.2 Sampling procedure ................................................................................................. 10
1.6.3 Data analysis procedures ......................................................................................... 11
1.7 Chapter outline ............................................................................................................................. 11
1.8 Summary of the chapter .............................................................................................................. 12
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Chapter 2: Review and Definition of Key Concepts ........................................................... 13
2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 13
2.2. Journalism and journalist ........................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 What is journalism? ................................................................................................. 13
2.2.2 New developments .................................................................................................. 16
2.2.3 Definition of the concept “journalism” ................................................................... 19
2.2.4 Who is a journalist? ................................................................................................. 19
2.2.5 New developments .................................................................................................. 21
2.2.6 Definition of the concept “journalist” ..................................................................... 23
2.3 Transformation ............................................................................................................................. 23
2.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 23
2.3.2 What is transformation? ........................................................................................... 24
2.3.3 Transformation in South Africa ............................................................................... 28
2.3.3.1 Transformation in education ............................................................................. 28
2.3.3.2 Transformation in the media ............................................................................. 33
2.3.4 Definition of transformation for purposes of this study .......................................... 35
2.4 Democracy .................................................................................................................................... 35
2.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 35
2.4.2 What is democracy? ................................................................................................. 36
2.4.3 Representative democracy ....................................................................................... 37
2.4.4 The role of the media in a democracy ..................................................................... 38
2.4.5 Defining democracy for the purposes of the study .................................................. 40
2.5 Education and training ................................................................................................................ 40
2.5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 40
2.5.2 What is education? ................................................................................................... 41
2.5.3 What is training? ...................................................................................................... 42
2.5.4 Defining education and training for purposes of this study..................................... 43
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2.6 Theory and Practice ..................................................................................................................... 43
2.6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 43
2.6.2 Theory ...................................................................................................................... 43
2.6.3 Practice .................................................................................................................... 46
2.6.4 The relationship between JE&T theory and practice ............................................... 47
2.6.5 Defining theory and practice for the purposes of the study ..................................... 49
2.7 Curriculum .................................................................................................................................... 49
2.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 49
2.7.2 What is Curriculum? ................................................................................................ 50
2.7.3 Definition of curriculum for purposes of this study ................................................ 52
2.8 Summary of the chapter .............................................................................................................. 52
Chapter 3: Literature Review ............................................................................................... 53
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 53
3.2 Journalism curricula review: USA and Europe ....................................................................... 54
3.2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 54
3.2.2 Early 20th century debates about the nature of JE&T .............................................. 54
3.2.3 The Oregon Report .................................................................................................. 56
3.2.4 The theory versus practice debate ........................................................................... 61
3.2.5 Alternative JE&T models in Western journalism schools....................................... 63
3.2.6 Summary .................................................................................................................. 64
3.3 Journalism curricula review: Africa .......................................................................................... 65
3.3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 65
3.3.2 Epistemological and philosophical underpinnings of African JE&T curricula ....... 65
3.3.3 Text books used in African JE&T classrooms ........................................................ 66
3.3.4 Debates on de-Westernising African JE&T curricula ............................................. 68
3.3.5 Summary .................................................................................................................. 70
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3.4 Journalism curricula review: South Africa ............................................................................... 70
3.4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 70
3.4.2 South African Conference on the Survival of the Press and Education for
Journalism ......................................................................................................................... 71
3.4.3 Theory versus practice debate ................................................................................. 72
3.4.4 De-Westernising/ (South) Africanisation of the JE&T curricula ............................ 74
3.4.5 The role of the media industry in JE&T .................................................................. 77
3.4.6 Summary .................................................................................................................. 79
3.5 Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 79
Chapter 4: Theoretical Paradigms ....................................................................................... 81
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 81
4.2 The post-colonial theory ............................................................................................................. 81
4.2.1 Defining post-colonial theory .................................................................................. 81
4.2.2 The “Orientalist discourse” and the notion of the “Other” ...................................... 83
4.2.3 Post-colonial feminist theorists and the concept of the “Other” ............................. 86
4.2.4 Power, knowledge production and the “Other” ....................................................... 88
4.2.5 Hybridity .................................................................................................................. 91
4.2.6 Criticisms of the post-colonial theory ..................................................................... 94
4.2.7 The relevance of the post-colonial theory to the study of the selected JE&T
curricula ............................................................................................................................ 96
4.3 Developmental journalism model .............................................................................................. 96
4.3.1 Defining developmental journalism ........................................................................ 96
4.3.2 The modernisation paradigm of development ......................................................... 97
4.3.3 The dependency-dissociation paradigm of development ........................................ 99
4.3.4 Emancipatory journalism ....................................................................................... 101
4.3.5 What then is developmental journalism? ............................................................... 102
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4.3.6 Criticisms of the participatory developmental journalism model ......................... 103
4.3.7 The relevance of the developmental journalism model to the study of selected
JE&T curricula ............................................................................................................... 104
4.4 Ubuntu philosophy .................................................................................................................... 105
4.4.1 Defining Ubuntu philosophy ................................................................................. 105
4.4.2 Criticisms of Ubuntu philosophy ........................................................................... 107
4.4.3 The relevance of the Ubuntu philosophy to the study of selected JE&T curricula
........................................................................................................................................ 109
4.5 Summary of the chapter ............................................................................................................ 109
Chapter 5: Research Methodology ..................................................................................... 110
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 110
5.2 Aim of the study ......................................................................................................................... 110
5.3 Sub-questions ............................................................................................................................. 110
5.4 The research design ................................................................................................................... 110
5.4.1 Collective case study ............................................................................................. 111
5.4.2 Mixed methods approach ....................................................................................... 113
5.4.2.1 Programme documents (Addendums 1, 2.1 and 2.3) ...................................... 114
5.4.2.2 Semi-structured questionnaire for programme coordinators (Addendum 2.3)
..................................................................................................................................... 117
5.4.2.3 Structured questionnaire for students (Addendum 2.4) .................................. 119
5.4.3 Triangulation ......................................................................................................... 124
5.4.4 Pilot Study ............................................................................................................. 125
5.5 The sample and sampling procedures ..................................................................................... 128
5.5.1 Sampling procedure ............................................................................................... 128
5.5.2 Sampling journalism tertiary institutions .............................................................. 129
5.5.3 Sampling the journalism programmes for this study ............................................. 131
5.5.4 Sampling the key informants for each programme ............................................... 131
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