Table Of ContentCereal Straw as a Resource for Sustainable
Biomaterials and Biofuels
This page intentionally left blank
Cereal Straw as a Resource
for Sustainable Biomaterials
and Biofuels
Chemistry, Extractives, Lignins, Hemicelluloses
and Cellulose
Run-Cang Sun
State Key Laboratory of Pulp and Paper Engineering,
South China University of Technology,
Guangzhou, China
AND
Institute of Biomass Chemistry and Technology,
Beijing Forestry University,
Beijing, China
Amsterdam(cid:129)Boston(cid:129)Heidelberg(cid:129)London(cid:129)NewYork(cid:129)Oxford(cid:129)Paris
SanDiego(cid:129)SanFrancisco(cid:129)Singapore(cid:129)Sydney(cid:129)Tokyo
Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK
First edition 2010
Copyright © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford,
UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: [email protected].
AlternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonlinebyvisitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,
and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material.
Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products,
instructions or ideas contained in the material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-444-53234-3
For information on all Elsevier publications
visit our website at www.elsevierdirect.com
Typeset by: diacriTech, Chennai, India
Printed and Bound in The Great Britain
10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface ix 4. Hemicelluloses
Jun-Li Ren and Run-Cang Sun
4.1 Introduction 73
1. Introduction 4.2 Occurrence, Nature, and Classification 73
4.2.1 Occurrence, Nature, and
Tong-Qi Yuan and Run-Cang Sun
Classification of Hemicelluloses 74
References 5 4.2.2 Occurrence, Nature, and
Classification of Straw
2. Structure, Ultrastructure, and Chemical Hemicelluloses 76
Composition 4.3 Isolation, Analysis, and Structure 77
4.3.1 Isolation 77
Feng Xu
4.3.2 Structural Analysis of Straw
2.1 Anatomical Structure 9 Hemicelluloses 85
2.2 Ultrastructure 10 4.3.3 Structure 89
2.2.1 Ultrastructure of Wood 10 4.4 Physicochemical Properties 96
2.2.2 Ultrastructure of Grass 15 4.4.1 Solubility 96
2.3 Distribution of Polysaccharides and Lignin 18 4.4.2 Mw and Mw Distribution 96
2.3.1 Polysaccharides Distribution 18 4.4.3 Rheological Behavior 97
2.3.2 Lignin Distribution 21 4.4.4 Surface Tension 98
2.4 Chemical Composition 29 4.4.5 Thermal Behavior 99
2.4.1 Cellulose 31 4.4.6 Biological Activity 100
2.4.2 Hemicelluloses 34 4.5 Interactions with Cellulose 100
2.4.3 Lignin 37 4.5.1 Interaction of Hemicelluloses
2.4.4 Pectic Substances 39 with Celluloses in Production
2.4.5 Proteins 40 of Celluloses 101
2.4.6 Cutins, Suberins, Waxes and 4.5.2 Interaction of Hemicelluloses
Other Extracts 40 with Celluloses in Papermaking
2.4.7 Ash 43 Process 103
References 43 4.5.3 Effect of Interaction of
Hemicelluloses with Celluloses
3. Extractives on the Bioethanol Production 104
4.5.4 The Assembly Characteristics of
Pai Peng, Jing Bian and Run-Cang Sun
Hemicelluloses on Cellulose 105
3.1 Isolation and Purification 50 4.6 Modification of Hemicelluloses and
3.1.1 Procedures for Isolation of its Application 105
Extractives 50 4.6.1 The Potential Modification of
3.1.2 Purification of Extractives 51 Hemicelluloses 105
3.2 Structural Characterization 52 4.6.2 Chemical Modification and its
3.2.1 Chemical Composition of Application 106
Extractives 52 4.6.3 Straw Hemicelluloses and
3.2.2 Spectroscopic and Thermal their Application 117
Characterization 62 4.7 Summary 118
References 70 References 119
v
vi Contents
5. Cellulose 6.4.2 DFRC Method 184
6.4.3 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Chuan-Fu Liu and Run-Cang Sun
Spectroscopy 185
5.1 Occurrence 131 6.5 Structural Characteristics of Straw Lignins 187
5.2 Isolation 132 6.5.1 Ferulates in Grass Lignins 188
5.2.1 Delignification and Alkali 6.5.2 p-Coumarates in Grass Lignins 192
Extraction 132 6.5.3 Lignin–Carbohydrate Complexes
5.2.2 Steam Explosion 134 in Grasses 193
5.2.3 Alkaline Peroxide Extraction 135 6.6 Utilization of Lignins 194
5.2.4 Organic Solvent Extraction 135 6.6.1 Wood Adhesives Made
5.2.5 Other Isolation Methods 136 from Lignins 195
6.6.2 Biochemicals/Biofuel from Lignins 196
5.3 Structure and the Crystalline Lattice
6.7 Concluding Remarks 197
of Cellulose I 138
References 198
5.3.1 Supermolecular Structure 138
5.3.2 Cellulose Lattice I 138
5.3.3 Conversion of Cellulose I to 7. Chemical Modification of Straw as
Cellulose II 142 Novel Materials for Industries
5.4 Physico-Chemical Properties 143
7.1 ChemicalModificationofCerealStraws
5.4.1 Structural Properties 143
asNaturalSorbentsinOilSpillCleanup 209
5.4.2 Dissolution of Cellulose 146
5.4.3 Regeneration of Cellulose 151 Diao She, Run-Cang Sun and
5.4.4 Hydrolysis of Cellulose 153 Gwynn Lloyd Jones
5.5 Chemical Modification and
7.1.1 Hazard of Oil Spill 209
its Utilization 154
7.1.2 Methods for Controlling
5.5.1 Acetylation 155
Oil Spills 209
5.5.2 Acylation with Other Linear
7.1.3 Classification of Oil Sorbents 209
Anhydrides or Chlorides 157
7.1.4 Principles of Sorbency 210
5.5.3 Esterification with Cyclic
7.1.5 Influence of Sorptive Capacity 210
Anhydrides 157
7.1.6 Chemical Modification of Cereal
5.5.4 Carboxymethylation 158
Straws as Oil Sorbents 211
5.5.5 Other Chemical Modification 161 7.1.7 Types of Catalysts in
5.6 Concluding Remarks 162 Chemical Modification 212
References 162 7.1.8 Agro-Based Sorbent
Application 213
6. Lignin References 216
FaChuang Lu and John Ralph
7.2 Modification of Cereal Straws as
6.1 Introduction 169
Natural Sorbents for Removing Metal Ions
6.2 Monolignols, and Lignification in
from Industrial Waste Water
Grass Cell Walls 170
Feng Peng and Run-Cang Sun
6.2.1 Biosynthesis of Monolignols 170
6.2.2 Lignin Deposition and 7.2.1 Introduction 219
Topochemistry 171 7.2.2 Mechanism of Metal Biosorption 220
6.2.3 Lignification – Polymerization 7.2.3 Adsorption Models 220
of Monolignols 173 7.2.4 Methods of Chemical Modification 221
6.3 Isolation and Purification of Lignins 174 7.2.4.1 The Methods of Direct
6.3.1 Milled Wood Lignin 175 Chemical Modification 222
6.3.2 Enzyme Lignin 177 7.2.4.2 Chemical Grafting
6.3.3 Alkali Lignins 178 Modification 223
6.3.4 Organosolv Lignin 180 7.2.5 Chemically Modified Straw 227
6.3.5 Purification of Lignins 182 7.2.5.1 Sugarcane Bagasse 227
6.4 Analytical Methods for Lignin 7.2.5.2 Rice Straw/Husks/Hulls 230
Characterization 183 7.2.5.3 Wheat Straw/Wheat Bran 231
6.4.1 Thioacidolysis 183 7.2.5.4 Corncobs 231
Contents vii
7.2.5.5 Soybean Straw/Hull 232 7.3.6 Summary 247
7.2.5.6 Other Straw/Hulls 233 References 248
7.2.6 Summary 233
References 234 7.4 Liquefaction and Gasification of Cereal Straws
Ming-Fei Li and Run-Cang Sun
7.3 Modification of Straw for Activated 7.4.1 Hydrothermal Liquefaction 253
Carbon Preparation and Application for the 7.4.2 Solvolytic Liquefaction 256
Removal of Dyes from Aqueous Solutions 7.4.3 Thermal Gasification 259
7.4.4 Hydrothermal Gasification 261
Tong-Qi Yuan and Run-Cang Sun
References 263
7.3.1 Introduction 239
7.3.2 Technologies Available for 7.5 Biorefinery Straw for Bioethanol
Dye Removal 239
Kun Wang and Run-Cang Sun
7.3.2.1 Biological Treatments 240
7.3.2.2 Chemical Methods 240 7.5.1 Introduction 267
7.3.2.3 Physical Methods 240 7.5.2 Lignocellulosic Biomass
7.3.3 Dye Removal Using Commercial Recalcitrance 268
Activated Carbons 241 7.5.3 Biorefinery Straw for Bioethanol
7.3.4 Dye Removal Using Agricultural Production 270
Wastes or Byproducts 242 7.5.3.1 Acid Hydrolysis 270
7.3.5 Production of Acs from Agricultural 7.5.3.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis 272
Byproducts 244 7.5.4 Summary 282
7.3.5.1 Physical Activation 245 References 283
7.3.5.2 Chemical Activation 245
7.3.5.3 Dye Removal Using Acs
from Agricultural
Byproducts 245 Index 289
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
The use of materials from renewable resources is attaining known about the three main components with respect to
increased importance, and the world’s leading industries their discovery, occurrence, chemical and physical proper-
and manufacturers are seeking to replace dwindling ties, analysis, molecular weight, isolation, and application.
petrochemical-based feedstocks with products derived Thelastchapterfocusesonchemicalmodificationsofstraw
from natural biomass such as cereal straws, which consist as novel materials for various industries.
mainly of three groups of organic compounds – cellulose, This book summarizes both our knowledge of straw
hemicelluloses, and lignin – representing an abundant, chemistry and gives a comprehensive account of progress
inexpensive, and readily available source of renewable and current knowledge in straw chemistry, drawing on an
lignocellulosic biomass. In particular, the whole concept of extensive set of references. I sincerely hope that this book
thechemicalaspectofstrawutilizationwasbroughtsharply willbeusedasateachingbookandanticipatethatitwillbe
into focus late inthe1990swhen theworldwas faced with particularly useful not only to scientists with research
the issue of oil and material shortage. On the basis of interests in the areas of natural resource management,
30 years of work in this area, I am convinced that cereal environmental chemistry, plant chemistry,materialscience,
strawwillplayanimportantroleinmovingsocietyfromits polysaccharide chemistry, ligninchemistry,etc.,butalsoto
petrochemical dependency to a sustainable economy, and academic and industrial scientists/researchers with an
Ialsonotethattousestrawwiselyandjudiciously,weneed interest in using agricultural residues as novel products
to have a basic knowledge of its composition and the for industries and/or recycling technologies. I am sure that
structureofthecellwalls.Chemicalstudiesofstrawandits this book will play an important role in the process of
components may provide decisive factors not only for its utilization of straw.
applicability but also for the economic feasibility of many All of the contributors, who were carefully selected to
industrial processes involving straw. However, although cover each particular subject, are active in research. As a
several excellent books on wood chemistry were published result,thisbookprovides,notonlyacomprehensivepicture
in the past, there is no book devoted specifically to straw ofthestateoftheart,butalsomuch unpublisheddata from
chemistry. More importantly, only recently new processes recentstudies.Isincerelythankallthecontributingauthors,
havebeendevelopedwherestrawcomponentsareseparated who come from Beijing Forestry University, South China
andisolatedonthepilotscale.Allofthesereasonsprovided University of Technology, University of Wisconsin-
the inspiration for this book. Madison, and North-West Agriculture and Forestry
This book provides us a thorough overview of straw University, for their excellent collaboration. I also would
chemistry. Chapter 1 provides an introduc tion. Chapter 2 like to give special thanks to Fachuang Lu and John Ralph
is concerned with the fundamentals of straw structure, for their long-term cooperation; Chapter 6 contains some
ultrastructure, and chemical composition. Chapter 3 covers unpublished data from their recent studies.
the extractives, which include isolation and structural Run-Cang Sun
characterization. Chapters 4–6 review what is currently Beijing, 2009
ix
