Cell Biology

557 Pages·1996·75 MB·English

by  C. A. Smith

-Ge//-
BIOLOGY
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SECOND EDITION
SMITH AND WOOD
KAPARCHIEF
CHAPMAN &. HALL
London· Weinheim . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras
Published by Chapman & Hall, 2--6 Boundary Row, London SE18HN, UK
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SE1 8HN
Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA
Chapman & Hall, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan
Chapman & Hall Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Victoria 3205, Australia
Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East, Madras 600 035, India
First edition 1992
Second edition 1996
© 1992, 1996 Chapman & Hall
Typeset in 1O/11~ pt Palatino by Ian Foulis & Associates
ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-8052-8 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-0441-8
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0441-8
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study,
or criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission
in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction
only in accordance with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright
Licensing Agency in the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences
issued by the appropriate Reproduction Rights Organization outside
the UK. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the terms stated
here should be sent to the publishers at the UK address printed on
this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard
to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot
accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that
may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Nwnber: 96-84896
Contents
Editors' foreword ix
Contributors to the second edition x
Preface to the first edition xi
Preface to the second edition xiii
Abbreviations xv
Greek alphabet xvii
The elements xviii
1 Cells: an introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Microscopy 2
1.3 Structure of cells 10
1.4 Classification of organisms by cell structure 12
1.5 The cell membrane 13
1.6 Membrane compartments 14
1.7 The cytosol 41
1.8 Compartmentation of eukaryotic cells 46
1.9 Cell fractionation 47
1.10 Overview 50
2 Bacteria and viruses 53
2.1 Introduction 53
2.2 Eubacteria 53
2.3 Archaea or Archaebacteria 72
2.4 Viruses 74
2.5 Viroids 81
2.6 Prions 82
2.7 Bacteria and viruses in biochemical research 83
2.8 Overview 84
3 Cell culture and biotechnology 87
3.1 Introduction 87
3.2 The beginnings of animal and plant cell culture 87
3.3 Animal cell culture 88
3.4 Plant cell culture 95
3.5 The scale-up of animal and plant cell cultures 97
3.6 Animal cell products 100
3.7 Plant cell products 106
3.8 Overview 108
4 Chromatin and the nucleus 111
4.1 Introduction 111
4.2 Transformation in Streptococcus pneumoniae 112
4.3 The Hershey and Chase experiment 114
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Contents
4.4 Tobacco mosaic virus 115
4.5 Evidence that DNA is the genetic material in eukaryotes 117
4.6 Exploiting DNA as the genetic material 117
4.7 The nucleoid 121
4.8 The nucleus 122
4.9 The nucleolus 139
4.10 Origin ofthe nucleus 141
4.11 Overview 141
5 Biological membranes 144
5.1 Introduction 144
5.2 Chemical components of biological membranes 145
5.3 Organization and fluidity of membrane components 153
5.4 Junctions between cells 163
5.5 The membrane as a dynamic entity 167
5.6 Cell signalling and cell recognition 170
5.7 Membrane transport 171
5.8 Overview 181
6 Mitochondria and chloroplasts 184
6.1 Introduction 184
6.2 Energy transduction pathways in mitochondria and
chloroplasts 185
6.3 Mitochondria 187
6.4 Chloroplasts 196
6.5 Biogenesis of mitochondria and chloroplasts 207
6.6 Evolutionary origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts 211
6.7 Overview 212
7 The cytoskeleton 214
7.1 Introduction 214
7.2 A brief history 215
7.3 The isolation and characterization of cytoskeletal proteins 216
7.4 Microfilaments 217
7.5 Intermediate filaments 227
7.6 Microtubules 234
7.7 The erythrocyte cytoskeleton 244
7.8 Movement of cells during the embryonic development of
animals 246
7.9 Concluding remarks 246
7.10 Overview 248
8 The extracellular matrix 251
8.1 Introduction 251
8.2 Composition and structural diversity 251
8.3 The fibrous proteins 252
8.4 The ground substance 256
8.5 Extracellular matrix diversity 262
8.6 Focal adhesions: specialized cytoskeleton-extracellular
matrix associations 265
8.7 Molecules that mediate cell adhesion 266
8.8 Membrane receptors for extracellular matrix macromolecules 277
8.9 Cell movement and matrix interaction 280
8.10 Regulation of receptor expression and function 280
8.11 Reciprocity, gene expression and cell shape 281
8.12 Overview 282
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9 Eukaryotic cell walls 287
9.1 Introduction 287
9.2 Cell walls of flowering plants 287
9.3 Algal and protist cell walls 301
9.4 Fungal cells walls 304
9.5 Overview 305
10 Animal hormones and local mediators 309
10.1 Introduction 309
10.2 Structure and classification of animal hormones and
local mediators 309
10.3 Structures of receptors in the cell membrane for hormones
and local mediators 311
10.4 Cyclic AMP as a second messenger 313
10.5 Signalling by cyclic GMP: atrial naturetic peptides and
nitric oxide 321
10.6 Inositol trisphosphate and diacylglycerol as second
messengers 322
10.7 Receptors signalling through tyrosine phosphorylation 328
10.8 Steroid hormones penetrate the cell membrane 330
10.9 Overview 335
11 Plant hormones 339
11.1 Introduction 339
11.2 Biosynthesis and general effects of major plant hormones 342
11.3 Mechanisms of plant hormone action 346
11.4 Second messengers 351
11.5 Other plant growth regulators 352
11.6 Interactive effects of plant hormones 357
11.7 Overview 358
12 Nerves, neurotransmitters and their receptors 361
12.1 Introduction 361
12.2 Resting potential 363
12.3 Action potential 364
12.4 Synaptic transmission, neurotransmitters and receptors 370
12.5 The generation of action potentials by sensory stimuli 380
12.6 Overview 388
13 Muscle contraction 391
13.1 Introduction 391
13.2 The cell biology of skeletal muscle 392
13.3 Other muscle types 396
13.4 Structural proteins of muscle 398
13.5 Energetics of muscle contraction 410
13.6 The role of ci+ in the regulation of muscle contraction and
metabolism 414
13.7 Factors controlling muscle gene expression 418
13.8 Overview 419
14 Immunological defence 423
14.1 Introduction 423
14.2 Specificity of the immune response 424
14.3 Non-specific immunity 426
14.4 Specific immunity 432
14.5 The structure and function of antibodies 435
14.6 Cells and tissues of the specific immune response 444
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Contents
14.7 Clonal selection 449
14.8 Antigen-presenting cells 450
14.9 Receptors on Band T lymphocytes 453
14.10 The major histocompatibility complex 454
14.11 Diversity of the immune response 457
14.12 Overview 460
15 Differentiation and development 463
15.1 Introduction 463
15.2 Stages of development in animals 464
15.3 Development in plants 470
15.4 Species used in the study of development 472
15.5 Totipotency, gene activity and differentiation 473
15.6 Determination, differentiation and developmental genetics 477
15.7 Positional information and the formation of pattern 482
15.8 Cell lineage studies 485
15.9 Cell differentiation and development in the nervous system 486
15.10 Overview 492
16 The cell cycle and cell death 495
16.1 Introduction 495
16.2 The cell cycle 498
16.3 Cell death 504
16.4 Overview 513
Answers to questions 517
Glossary 527
Index 531
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Viii Contents
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Editors'
foreword
This book is one of a series of brief fundamental texts for junior
undergraduates and diploma students in biological science. The series,
Molecular and Cell Biochemistry, covers the whole of modern biochemistry,
integrating animal, plant and microbial topics. The intention is to give the
series special appeal to the many students who read biochemistry for only
part of their course and who are looking for an all-encompassing and
stimulating approach. Although all books in the series bear a distinct family
likeness, each stands on its own as an independent text.
Many students, particularly those with less numerate backgrounds, find
elements of their biochemistry courses daunting, and one of our principal
concerns is to offer books which present the facts in a palatable style. Each
chapter is prefaced by a list of learning objectives, with short summaries and
revision aids at the ends of chapters. The text itself is informal, and the
incorporation of marginal notes and information boxes to accompany the
main text give a tutorial flavour, complementing and supporting the main
narrative. The marginal notes and boxes relate facts in the text to applicable
examples in everyday life, in industry, in other life sciences and in medicine,
and provide a variety of other educational devices to assist, support, and
reinforce learning. References are annotated to guide students towards
effective and relevant additional reading.
Although students must start by learning the basic vocabulary of a subject,
it is more important subsequently to promote understanding and the ability to
solve problems than to present the facts alone. The provision of imaginative
problems, examples, short-answer questions and other exercises is designed
to encourage such a problem-solving attitude.
A major challenge to both teacher and student is the pace at which
biochemistry and molecular biology are advancing at the present time. For the
teacher and textbook writer the challenge is to select, distil, highlight and
exemplify, tasks which require a broad base of knowledge and indefatigable
reading of the literature. For the student the challenge is not to be
overwhelmed, to understand and ultimately to pass the examination! It is
hoped that the present series will help by offering major aspects of
biochemistry in digestible portions.
This vast corpus of accumulated knowledge is essentially valueless unless it
can be used. Thus these texts have frequent, simple exercises and problems. It
is expected that students will be able to test their acquisition of knowledge but
also be able to use this knowledge to solve problems. We believe that only in
this way can students become familiar and comfortable with their knowledge.
The fact that it is useful to them will mean that it is retained, beyond the last
examination, into their future careers.
The present series was written by lecturers in universities and colleges who
have many years of experience in teaching, and who are also familiar with
current developments through their research interests. They are, in addition,
familiar with the difficulties and pressures faced by present-day students in
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Editors' foreword ix /