Table Of ContentSTUDIES ON THE HISTORY OF ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL
ART OF WARFARE
VOLUME 1
MARIUSZ MIELCZAREK.
CATAPHRACTI AND CLIBANARJI
STUDIES ON THE HEAVY ARMOURED CAVALRY
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
LODt 1993
MARIUSZ MIELCZAREK
CATAPHRACTI AND CLIBANARII
STUDIES ON THE HEAVY ARMOURED CAVALRY
OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
OFICYNA NAUKOWA MS
LODZ 1993
Translated by
Maria Abramowicz
Cover designed by
Emilia Wtorkiewicz-Marosik
Oficyna Naukowa MS
P.O. Box 126
90-965 L6d 136
Poland
Copyright by Oficyna Naukowa MS - Lodz 1993
Printed in Poland
ISBN 83-85874-00-3
CONTENTS
Abbreviations.................................................................................................. 7
Introduction..................................................................................................... 9
Part I. Sources............................................................................................. 19
Part П. Cataphracti and clibanarii.
Tactics and the problem of the origin of the formation 41
Part Ш. Cataphracti and clibanarii.
Organization and arms and armour........................................... 51
1. Parthian and Sassanian cataphracti and clibanarii 51
2. Seleucid cataphracti........................................................... 67
3. Roman cataphracti (catafractarii) and clibanarii 73
4. Palmyrenian clibanarii....................................................... 85
Conclusion...................................................................................................... 89
Appendix.
Sarmatian and Bosporan heavy armoured cavalry.................. 95
Polish Summary
Cataphracti i clibanarii.
Studia nad ci^zkozbrojn^ jazd$ antyczn^................................... 103
Plates
ABBREVIATIONS
AJA - “American Journal of Archaeology”
ANRW - Aufstieg und Niedergang der romischen Welt, Berlin-New York 1973
Khazanov - A.M. Khazanov, Kataphraktarii i ikh rol’ v istorii voennogo iskus-
stva, “Vestnik Drevnei Istorii”, 1968, 1, pp. 180-191.
CIL - Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, Berolini 1862 -.
Eadie - J.W. Eadie, The Development of Roman Mailed Cavalry, “Journal of
Roman Studies”, 57, 1967, pp. 161-173.
Gabba - E. Gabba, Sulle influenze reciproche degli ordinamenti militari dei
Parti e dei Romani, [in:] Atti del convegno sul tema: La Persia e il mondo
Greco-romano, Roma 11-14 aprile 1965, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei
CCCLXIII, 1966, quademi, 76, pp. 51-73 [reed, in: Per la storia dell’ esercito
romano in eta imperiale, Bologna 1974].
Gamber - O. Gamber, Kataphrakten, Clibanarier, Normannenreiter, “Jahrbuch der
Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien”, 64 (N.E XXVIII), 1968, pp. 7-44.
Hoffmann - D. Hoffmann, Das spatromische Bewegungsheer und die Notitia
Dignitatum, I-II, Dusseldorf 1969-1970 [Epigraphische Studien, 7/1-2].
IA - “Iranica Antiqua”
ILS - H. Dessau, Inscriptions Latinae Selectae, I-III, Berolini 1892-1916.
IOSPE - B. Latyschev, Inscriptions antiquae orae septentrionalis Ponti Euxini
graecae et latinae, 1.2, Petropoli 1916 [reed. Hildesheim 1965].
JHS - “Journal of Hellenic Studies”
JKSW - “Jahrbuch der Kunsthistorischen Sammlungen in Wien”
JRS - “Journal of Roman Studies”
KSIA - “Kratkie Soobshcheniya Instituta Arkheologii”
KSIIMK - “Kratkie Soobshcheniya Instituta Istorii Material’noi Kul’tury”
RE - Paulys Real - Encyclopadie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft,
Stuttgart 1893
Rostovtsev - M.I. Rostovtsev, Antichnaya dekorativnaya zhivopis’ na yuge Ros-
sii, I. Tekst. Opisanie i izsledovanie pamyatnikov, S.-Peterburg 1914,
[II] Atlas, S.-Peterburg 1913.
Rostovtzeff - M.I. Rostovtzeff, Graffiti, [in:] The Excavations at Dura-Europos
conducted by Yale University and the French Academy of Inscriptions and
Letters, Preliminary Report of Fourth Season of Work, October 1930-March
1931, ed. by P.V.C. Baur, M.I. Rostovtzeff, A.R. Bellinger, New Haven 1933,
pp. 207-222.
SA - "Sovetskaya Arkheologiya”
Speidel - M.P. Speidel, Cataffactarii Clibanarii and the Rise of the Later Roman
Mailed Cavalry. A Gravestone from Claudiopolis in Bithynia, “Epigraphica
Anatolica”, 4, 1984, pp. 151-156.
Tam - W.W. Tam, Hellenistic Military and Naval Developments, Cambridge
1930.
VDI - “Vestnik Drevnei Istorii”
INTRODUCTION*
Ancient written sources show that cataphracti (catafractarii) and clibanarii -
the ancient heavy armoured cavalry - were present on the battlefields of the
ancient world from the Hellenistic period to Late Antiquity.
According to Greek and Roman accounts, the cavalry named cataphracti and
clibanarii were employed by the Parthians, cataphracti were a part of the Se-
leucid army, units of cataphracti and clibanarii were created by the Romans, they
were also present in Sassanian Persia.
Though Greek and Roman writings do not describe it by this term, the name
of cataphracti is today also given to heavy armoured cavalry of the Sarmatians
and of other states and peoples of the East, not mentioned above, where the
presence of heavy armoured cavalry is documented. This is done in accordance
with the prevalent opinion that the decisive factor in qualifying a rider as a cata-
phractus or a clibanarius was the military equipment he used: well developed
protective armour, a long spear which was the basic offensive weapon, and the
use of the horse protected by armour.
Though in ancient accounts - modest and specific - heavy armoured cavalry
*For concern and help I wish to express my particular thanks to Prof. J. Kolendo (Warszawa).
I wish also to express my gratitude to Prof. A. Nowakowski (Torun) and Prof. A. Nadolski (Lodz),
Prof. P. Bernard (Paris), W.M. Stancomb (London), Dr. J. Steen Jensen and Dr. A. Kromann
(Copenhagen), Dr. V.A. Goroncharovskii and Dr. V.P. Nikonorov (Betersbourg), to Prof. S. Sucho-
dolski (Warszawa), Prof. A. Abramowicz (Lodz), Prof. M. Glosek (Lodz), Prof. T. Poklewski
(Lodz).
1 would also like to express thanks to the Fondation Hardt for making my work at the centre in
Vandoeuvres possible.
My particular thanks are due to Mrs. M. Abramowicz for the translation of the text
Q
was described several times, the relation between the cataphracti and the clibana
rii (both words mentioned in Greek and Roman sources are derived from the
names of body armour1) is not clear. The account of Livy on the Seleucid cata
phracti contains the earliest certain mention of the cataphracti referring to the
first quarter of the 2nd century B.C.2 The word clibanarii referring both to Per
sian and Roman horsemen, appeared in Roman sources telling about events that
took place in the 3rd century A.D.3 In the late Roman sources the words “cata-
fractus” and “clibanarius” are interchanged; the phrase (catafractus) catafracta
rius clibanarius seems to be documented by the inscription from Bithynia .
The problem is whether the cataphracti and the clibanarii were one Parthian,
Persian or Roman unit defined by two names equites cataphractarios, quos cli-
banarios vocanP, or whether they were two types of heavy armoured cavalry. If
the second possibility is true the question is what did the difference consist in?
No proposal recently made, suggesting that the existence of the two names is due
to the difference in the rider’s military equipment has been accepted6. The con
trary opinion that there was no difference between cataphracti and clibanarii has
also been rejected. The latter, however would be supported by the phrase (cata
fractus) catafractarius clibanarius^.
The solution worked out in this study differs from those usually put forward
by scholars dealing with cataphracti and clibanarii. The basic criterion of the
cataphracti and the clibanarii distinction is based not on the analysis of the rele
vant equipment (this has been preferred so far) but on an attempt to assess the
tactics used by cataphracti and clibanarii. This approach has been adopted be
cause of the convinction that in light of the accounts of ancient writers it seems
feasible to accept the suggestion that the order of battle and not the equipment
was the factor that differentiated the cataphracti and clibanarii from other types
1 H. F r i s k, Griechisches etymologisches Worterbuch, I, Heidelberg 1960, p. 873 (clibanarios);
H.G. Liddell* R. Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford 1930, p. 920 (cataphractos) and
p. 995 (clibanarios); Thesaurus Linguae Graecae, IV, Parisiis 1841, cols. 1293-1294; A. W a 1 d e,
Lateinisches etymologisches Worterbuch, I, Heidelberg 1938, pp. 232-233 (clibanarius); Thesaurus
Linguae Latine, Ш.З, Lipsiae 1908, col. 591 and УШД Lipsiae 1910, cols. 1341-1342; see also
F. Rundgren, Uber einige iraniscbe Lehnwdrter im lateinischen und griecbischen, “Orientalia
Suecana”, 6, 1957, pp. 49-51. Also RE, IV. 1, col. 22 - clibanarii [Fiebiger] and X.2, col. 2479 -
ках<хфракто1 [Lammert].
The term “kataphrakta” - body armour, appeared for the first time in Egyptian papyri of the 3rd
century B.C. ENTEYEEE. Requetes et plaintes adressees au roi d’Egypte au Ше siecle avant J.-C.,
Le Caire 1931, nos. 32 and 45 (both from Magdola).
2 Liv., 35.48.
3 SHA, Alex. Sev., 56.
Speidel, passim - catafractarius clibanarius.
5 SHA, Alex. Sev., 56; Amm. Marc., 16.10.8.
Rostovtzeff, pp. 217fF. (horses of the clibanarii were protected by armour and those of
cataphracti were not); E a d i e, pp. 170,172-173; G a m b e r, p. 31; H о f f m a n n, X pp. 265 ff.;
Khazanov, p. 181.
G a b b a, p. 65; S p e i d e 1, passim.
of heavy armoured cavalry and from each other. The comparison of the accounts
of Greek and Roman authors on the tactics employed by the cataphracti and that
employed by the clibanarii shows that the cataphractus was a spearman fighting
in serried ranks of similar warriors: a rider fighting in an order which may be
called the column order. Documented cooperation of the cataphracti with
mounted archers (this subject has been of great interest to the scholars) was first
of all established through the cooperation of separate groups of soldiers. On die
other hand, the tactics of the clibanarii was more similar to the fighting principle
adopted by medieval cavalry armed with pikes (I make this comparison fully
aware of the differences arising from the lack of stirrups in antiquity and a diffe
rent way of using a long shaft weapon). The clibanarius cooperated with the
mounted archer, and his tactics was more similar to the medieval wedge-like
order than to the column array when both units formed separate groups. If we
regard tactics as the basis for the assessment of heavy armoured cavalry, we can
accept that the same warrior could be a cataphractus or a clibanarius as the need
arose. Thus the possibility of changing tactics, and not the identity of the two
types of cavalry would explain the phrase (catafractus) catafractarius clibanarius
that appears in ancient sources.
One of the objects of this study is to put forward arguments for the thesis that
the decisive role in the development of ancient heavy armoured cavalry defined
as cataphracti and clibanarii was played by the tactics and not by equipment
In accordance with the opinion of most ancient writers dealing with cata
phracti and clibanarii, who paid special attention to the specificity of the equip
ment of heavy armoured horsemen, the studies on this subject have so far been
dominated by problems of arms and armour8. One of the causes of this approach
seems to be due to the fact that in order to assess the equipment it was not
necessary to participate in a battle, whereas the assessment of tactics required
military experience, which those writing about cataphracti and clibanarii usually
did not have. The accounts written by authors who actually saw horsemen of this
type are far from numerous.
That modem studies on cataphracti and clibanarii concentrate on equipment
seems primarily due to the fact that most treatises of fundamental importance for
the problem of ancient mailed cavalry have been written in connection with the
publication of iconographical materials. Thus the main task that faced the re
searcher who undertook studies based on iconography, though he used all other
possible sources as well, was to try to answer the question whether the depicted
8 The term “catafractus” is present in medieval Latin - milites a capite ad pedes usque cata-
phrcictati, a Polish document concerning 1518. Acta Tomiciana of the early 16th century (IV,
p. 322). See Slownik laciny sredniowiecznej w Pobce, 11.2(10), Wroclaw-Warszawa-Krakow 1960,
col. 243. Lexicon Latinitatis Nederlandicae Medii Aevii,. f. 8, Leiden 1978, p. 649. For Byzantine
matters: T.G. Kolias, Byzantinische Wajfen. Ein Beitrag zur byzantinischen WaffenkuTide von
den Anfangen bis zur lateinischen Eroberung, Wien 1988.
