Table Of Content© Biologiezentrum Linz/Austria; download unter www.biologiezentrum.at
Case study: Economic and structural settlement
changes and their consequences in the community of
La Gamba, Golfo Dulce region
Estudio de caso: Cambios estructurales y económicos de la
población y sus consecuencias en la comunidad La Gamba,
región del Golfo Dulce
Michael KLINGLER
Abstract:ThecommunityofLaGambahasexperiencedseveralproblemsconcerningmonoculturallanduse,unemploymentand
thesupplyofsocialservices,aswellaspressurecausedbytheincreasingscarcityofnaturalresources.Intermsofhuman-environ-
mentalinteraction,theconflictbetweentheconservationofbiodiversityandthelocalpopulation’sdependenceonnaturalre-
sourcesisdiscussedfromtheformationofthesettlementuptotheyear2006.
Keywords:monoculture,naturalresources,humanenvironmentalinteraction,conservationofbiodiversity,dependenceonre-
sources.
Resumen:LaComunidaddeLaGambahaexperimentadoseriosproblemasrelacionadosalusodelsuelopormonocultivo,aldes-
empleoyalacoberturadelosserviciossociales,asícomolapresióncausadaporelcrecienteagotamientodelosrecursosnatura-
les.Enbasealainteracciónhombre-medioambiente,sediscuteelconflictoentrelaconservacióndelabiodiversidadyladepen-
denciadelosrecursosporpartedelapoblaciónlocal,desdelaocupacióninicialhastaelaño2006.
Palabrasclave:monocultivo,recursosnaturales,interacciónhombre-medioambiente,conservacióndelabiodiversidad,depen-
denciaderecursos.
Introduction region of Golfo Dulce. A retrospective survey of land
usageintheLaGambacommunityilluminatesthehis-
Thechangingstructureandrôleoftheagricultural
toryofthesocialandeconomicsettlementfromitsbe-
sector and the development of regional sustainability
ginning, through the influential banana boom of the
hasalteredthedynamicsofthehuman-environmental
United Fruit Company and later attempts to diversify,
interaction in La Gamba. Diverse survival strategies
the subsequent governmental agricultural reform and
andvaryingopinionsabouttheconservationofnature
itsimpacts,uptothepresent-daytransitiontosustain-
arerepresentedinthewidemixtureofactorsinthere-
ableregionaldevelopmentwithitsresultingconflicts.
gion. As a result of the belief that nature is merely a
commodityandaresource,manyconflictsoccurduring
the inter-play between economic, ecological, and so- Physical and geographic
cio-cultural factors. The community of La Gamba features in the region of study
servestherebyasacasestudytoillustratethediffering
interests of actors in the local, national, and global Location
tradecommunities.
TheLaGambacommunity(coordinatesofthevil-
Thesignificantgeographicalfeaturesintheregion lage center: 8°42’33”N-83°11’04”W) is located in the
andahistoricaloverviewofthesequenceandcausesof politicalandadministrativedistrictsGolfitoandGuay- Stapfia88,
agricultural colonisation highlight and clarify impor- cará in the Puntarenas Province. It is bordered to the zugleichKatalogeder
oberösterreichischen
tantdetailsthatareessentialtounderstandingthede- northandwestbytheParqueNacionalPiedrasBlancas, Landesmuseen
NeueSerie80(2008):
velopment of the cultural landscape in the peripheral tothesouthandsoutheastbytheRefugiodeVidaSil-
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Pioneer Phase of Initial Phase Government Phase of Conflict Transition Phase to Phase of Sustainable
Phase Expansion ofDiversification Agricultural Reform Regional Development versus
Phase Sustainability Int. Market Orientation
appearance retreat of the U.F.Co. land distribution by IDA foundation of the appearance of the “Esquinas Rainforest Lodge”
land occupation of the United from the region expansion of livestock Parque Nacional Fundación Neotrópica sustainable ecotourism
agrarian Fruit Company unemployment production, rice, cocoa Piedras Blancas effort for conflict solution monoculture of palma africana
valorization banana boom and timber rainforest conservancy between natur conservancy (Elaeis guineensis)
livestock production versus and local small farmers
imniitgiaraltion emxopnoortc-uolrtiuernetated caunldti vcaotcioona of rice ecostmambliusnhimtye cnet notfr ea u“Rtielisgaetniowna oldf rdeesro urces extension of basic initiatives
expansion of problem of extensive land utilisation Österreicher” and infrastructure
infrastructure
inundation resettlement from
strong migration affected areas
1941-1945 1954 1960 1978 1991 1996 2000
Fig.1:PhasesofeconomicalandstructuralchangesofsettlementinLaGamba
vestre Golfito, and to the east by the Interamericana banana cultivation site. The subsequent departure of
Sur. The territory makes up 2.460 ha and is comprised the Compañía Bananera caused widespread unemploy-
oftheLaGamba,RíoBonitoandLaBolsasettlements. ment and emigration from the entire South Pacific re-
gion.Asaresult,manysubstantialsocialandeconomic
Naturalfeatures changestookplacewithintheregion.Inparticular,this
La Gamba sits in the bottom of a valley on top of periodsawexpansionandadvancementintheproduc-
theRíoClarotectonicdepression,whereitslandranges tion of cocoa, rice, yucca, oil palms, lumber (gmelina,
fromflattoan8°slope.Thesoilconsistsofalluvialand teak)andlivestock.Today,CostaRicaisstrivingtocre-
colluvial deposits, which is typical for piedmont areas ate sustainable regional development in the Golfo
alongthebordersoftheRíoBonito(MORA1990).The Dulceregion,whileconcentratingontheareasofcon-
erosive, tectonic landscape evokes the Fila Gamba, flict between economic interests, social equality, and
which had to make structural adjustments to its ecologicalconservation.
drainage system to account for geologic shifts and tec-
Pioneerphase(1941-1953)
tonic fractures. Traces of Nicoya and basalt complexs
from the Cretaceous Period are particularly visible on Theperiodfollowingtheworldeconomiccrisisand
the south face of the Fila Gamba (CHINCHILLA 1998). populationgrowthintheMesetaCentralsawaconstant
Smallvalleymeanderscarvethetopographicallyyoung increase in agricultural colonisation. Pioneers founded
mountainswithamaximumelevationof1.220metres. dispersedsettlementsandcultivatedasubsistenceecon-
omy based on slash-and-burn farming. Infrequent pro-
The Golfo Dulce, as part of the ‘tierra caliente’ re-
ductionsurpluses,weakinfrastructureanddistancefrom
gion,hasanaveragerainfallof5.891.6mma-1(observa-
markets were the significant factors that led to an al-
tionperiod1998-2003),withamaximumof1.209mm
most complete isolation from the domestic market.
(09/2000),amid-yeartemperatureof27.8°Candarela-
They prevented a market-orientated approach to agri-
tivehumidityof88.3%attheTropenstationLaGamba
cultural production and an expansion of productive
and 97.7% inside in the forest (HUBER 2005, WEIS- land, which forced the settlers to expand in peripheral
SENHOFER2005).Theconsistentlyhightemperatureand areas, as land ownership in the area was constantly
rainfall create an intense chemical decomposition changing due to squatters’ rights (JONES & MORRISON
process on soils. Ultisols, inceptisols, and entisols are 1952, BARAHONA 1953, SANDNER 1961). The pioneer
typicalintheregionofstudy(MAG&MIRENEN1995, phase was shaped by scattered, largely unregulated
PAMPERL2001). colonisation,whichrevealedthepotentialfortheUnit-
ed Fruit Company as a global actor in the nascent en-
Changes in the economic and claveeconomyinthePacificlowlands.
settlement structures in the La Gamba
Phaseofexpansion(1954-1960)
community and their consequences
A subsidiary of the U.F.Co., the Compañia Banan-
The development of the Esquinas district and the era attempted to overcome internal structural deficits
establishment of a loading port with an administrative andadapttothelocalsituation,aswellasprovideaba-
centre in Golfito by the Banana Trust led to increased sisforsocialmodernisationandincreasedwealthbyex-
agricultural colonisation in the region’s under-devel- pandingeconomicgrowth(ALTENBURG1992).Asare-
oped settlement structure. The La Gamba community sult of the low restrictions on development granted by
wasusedfortheshortperiodfrom1954until1961asa theCortés-ChittendenLeaseContract,themarket-ori-
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Fig.2:LandutilisationofLa
Gambaintheyears1960,1973,
1983,1998,2006.Sources:
Klingler,IGN2007-Editing:
KLINGLER2007
651
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entatedagriculturesectorinitiatedmassiveexpansionof Thelocalproductivityintheregiondidnot,howev-
theregionalinfrastructure(railwaylines,streets,portfa- er, adequately aid the unemployed and often homeless
cilities in Golfito and Quepos), the creation of addi- portionofthepopulation.Governmentofficialsdevot-
tional settlements, and the allotment of small plots of ed to promoting equality in the disparate agricultural
farmland. The expansion of cultivable land in Distrito structureemergedasactorsonthenationallevelandal-
Esquinasbroughtanextensionoftherailwaylinealong so represented local workers and defended their rights.
the high traffic route of Palma Sur-Golfito-Laurel and Settlementreformwassubsidisedbythegovernmentto
ledtothecreationofagroupsettlement(‘caserío’)near supporttheagriculturalexportpoliticsoftheITCO(In-
theentranceofLaGamba.Ownersoflargeestatesop- stituto de Tierras y Colonización) and created a situa-
eratedlargeplantationswiththehelpof700-800work- tion where the local actors were dependent on the
ers and day labourers, while cultivating their own gar- government.
dens for private use. The subsequent colonisation oc-
Governmentagricultural
curred without regard for environmental protections,
reformphase(1978-1990)
particularly regarding the valuable forests, and caused
Thecontinuousreductionofplantationlandinthe
irreversible damage to the local ecosystem (MAY &
Pacificlowlandsparticularlyaffectedthepreviouslyim-
PLAZA 1958, ROBINSON 1948). Additionally, a social
portant Golfito. An unyielding decline in the local
structure was established between the powerful
trade economy and the community administration en-
landowners, who were the employers of the banana
sued.Harshlivingconditionsemergedintheagricultur-
plantations, and the agricultural workers who were de-
alreformcoloniesontheformerplantations.Acomplex
pendentonthem.Independentactorco-operationsalso
socialstructureemergedintheGolfitoCanton,divided
formedatthistimetocampaignforworkers’rights.This
between subsistence farming, large livestock and rice
secondary phase of colonisation was led by a group of
cultivation companies, and agricultural cooperatives
actorswhoweremotivatedmainlybyshort-termprofits
thatsoughttocontinuethecultivationofoilpalmsand
on consumptive resources. The Trust Corporation’s su-
bananas on the plantations (RAMÍREZ AVENDAÑO
premacy reduced the government’s influence and con-
1990).
trolintheregiontoaminimum.
TheexpansionoftheRíoBonitoundLaBolsaham-
Initialphaseofdiversification lets reflected the social fractures and structural hetero-
After a seven-year production period, soil degrada- geneityintheproductionintheseareas,asopposedto
theconditionsinthecentralLaGambadrainagebasin
tion,floods,cropdiseases,lowexportrevenues,andin-
(Fig.2).Ononehand,extensivelivestockindustryand
creasinglypowerfulunionsledtoanearlyabandonment
rice cultivation, characterised by ‘paternalismo’,
oftheplantationeconomyinLaGamba.Thefailureto
broughtincreasedrevenuesandbecamepartofthepro-
base the economy on international market-orientated,
ductionoffoodcropsinthenationaleconomy.Onthe
cashcropproductionandthelackofagriculturalreform
other hand, the settlements on abandoned plantations
led to unstable regional development and the collapse
were plagued with extreme poverty. The structure of
ofLaGambaandinabroadersense,theSouthPacific
small farms led to the predomination of subsistence
Region, which was plagued by devastating unemploy-
farming, whereby the farmers had minimal financial
ment. A restructuring followed, which saw the transi-
capital and rarely achieved production surpluses. The
tion from the export-orientated, internationally con-
productionofcocoaremainedtheonlycashcrop,yetits
trolledbananaplantationeconomytoanexport-orien-
importancedeclinedduetohighcropdensityanddefi-
tatedriceandlivestockeconomy,whichwasfundedby
cientmarketinfrastructure.Theexpansionoflargeagri-
investors at a national level (SPIELMANN 1969). Clear- culturalfarmsandcompaniesalsoservedtohamperat-
ing occurred in La Gamba from Valle Bonito in the
temptstodevelopastructuresupportingsmallfarmers,
north to La Bolsa in the south to expand the area for
as these farmers were continually displaced and forced
pastureandricecultivation(Fig.2).Theextractionof
to move to isolated regions with little agricultural po-
tropicaltimberbecameincreasinglyimportanteconom- tential.Theproblemwasexacerbatedbyrisingproperty
ically,whichledtoconsiderableanduncontrolledslash- prices,lackofcropdiversification,inefficientlanduse,
and-burn farming that undervalued natural resources low earning capacity, and insufficient education possi-
and was accompanied by insufficient reforestation pro- bilities. The relationship between small farmers with
grams.Thefirstsuccessincombatingthisharmfulclear- minimalmarketintegrationandlargefarmsorbusiness-
ingactivityoccurredwiththeestablishmentofthePar- es with little contact to the regional economy became
que Nacional de Corcovado in 1975 and the Reserva increasingly polarised. Furthermore, the expansion of
ForestalGolfoDulcein1978. pasture land and increased demand for timber caused
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Fig.3:Conflicts
betweenrainforest
conservancyand
utilisation.Sources:
Klingler,IGN2005-
Editing:KLINGLER2007
additionalencroachmentontherainforestanditsnatu- cultures.Theconservationofthenaturalecosystemwas
ral ecosystem, which produced substantial problems of reflectedthroughouttheentireterritoryofCostaRica.
soilerosion,nutrientdepletion,andsoilsealing. Wide areas of land, including those formerly used for
crop production, became protected with the establish-
TheoverdueagriculturalreformwasledbytheIDA
ment of national parks, biological reserves, and game
(Instituto Desarrollo Agrario) and facilitated the con-
preserves, in which preservation of biodiversity was
solidationofthesmallfarmingsector,aswellasthees-
mandated. Protected resource areas and forest reserves
tablishmentoftheAsentamientoCampesinoLaGam-
were also created, in which only limited resource use
ba,whichservedasacommunalactorgroup.Theagri-
waspermitted(NUHN1998).
culturalco-operativeCOOPROSURwasconsideredre-
sponsible for the implementation of regional develop- Through the financing of the Parque Nacional
ment measures. Working together with the large land- Piedras Blancas, the Austrian Development Coopera-
owners,itwasdeterminedthatmonoculturesshouldbe tion and the Association ‘Regenwald der Österreicher’
grownonlarge-scaleplotsoflandandproducedatcom- (RdÖ)areworkinginLaGambaasglobalactorsforsus-
petitive prices for the market. In order to decrease the tainabledevelopmentwithafocusontheconservation
gapineconomicgrowthbetweentheValleCentraland of ecosystems, the utilisation of region-specific poten-
theperipheralGolfoDulceregion,theagriculturalsec- tial,andthecarefuluseofnaturalresources.Inorderto
torwaselevatedinimportanceandbecamethemotorof find an alternative to the exploitation and destruction
the national economy. The Depósito Libre Comercial of the rainforest while maintaining a long term ap-
deGolfitofreetradezonewascreatedasafurtherlocal proach to balancing and stabilising various economic,
political tool to stimulate the local economy and in- educational, and health factors within the community,
creasetourism. theEsquinasRainforestLodgewasinstalledasamodel
forecotourism.Resettlementissuesrelatedtothefoun-
Phaseofconflict(1991-1995) dationofnationalparksandinadequateparticipationin
The government’s growth-orientated development the integration of the village community, however,
policies and the constant demand for ecological re- caused conflicts between rainforest protection and the
sourceshaddevastatingimpactsonthelocalecosystem. utilisationoftheresourcesintherainforest(Fig.3).
For a considerable period, the negative effects of re-
source extraction, as well as increasing damage to the Transitionphaseto
regionalsustainability(1996-1999)
environmentduetoeconomicgrowth,wasnotexplicit-
ly discussed. Campaigns to protect the environment TheemergenceoftheCostaRicanNGOFundación
grewinthe1990sandcreatedacounterbalancetothe Neotrópicaincreasedinfrastructureandbasicinitiatives
expansion-orientated economic policies of the mono- andsoughttoprovideasolutiontotheconflictbetween
653
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Fig.4:Traditionalfincabasedonsubsistencefarmingversusplantation.Source&Editing:KLINGLER2007
environmentalconservationandlocalsmallfarmers’at- PROBI,COOPEGAMBA)andcommittees,theexpan-
tempts to survive. The poorly developed system of the sion of basic infrastructure, and the increase of a sus-
agricultural production sector and restrictive local fac- tainable environmental consciousness. The foundation
tors decreased the chances of further development of oftheParqueNacionalPiedrasBlancasandtheRefugio
the agricultural sector and insufficiently provided for Nacional de Fauna Silvestre Golfito prevented the ex-
thepopulation(Fig.2).Significantattemptsweremade pansion of slash-and-burn farming for ecological rea-
to establish ecotourism as the driving force of the re- sons,aswellasintegratedsecondaryforestsanddegrad-
gionaleconomyinthefuture.Anadditionalgoalwasto edlandareas.Currentprojectsincludereforestationef-
raisethelocalpopulation’sawarenesswithregardtosus- forts,thesowingofplantsneartheriver,andtheinstal-
tainableinteractionwiththeenvironment. lationofabiologicalcorridor,whichallsignificantlyin-
creasetheecologicalvalueofthetropicalrainforest.
Phaseofsustainabledevelopmentversus
internationalmarketorientation(2000-2006)
Conclusion
Thecurrenteconomicsituationofbothlocaltypes
offarmsshowsatransitionfromsubsistencefarmingto TheLaGambasphereofinfluenceandsurrounding
anexport-orientatedplantationeconomy.Whiletradi- areacurrentlyfacesaconflictbetweenprofit-orientated
tionaldomesticfarmingstillconsistslargelyofpersonal strategiesforusingnaturalresourcesandsustainablere-
gardens and a large portion of pastureland is used for gionaldevelopment.Atthesametime,theregionisbe-
beef,theplantationeconomyisexpandingagricultural setbyhighunemployment,insufficienteducationalop-
landusetoamaximumlevel(Fig.4).Twoglobalactors portunities, and a deficient infrastructure. Modernisa-
arecurrentlyveryinfluentialinLaGamba.Atpresent, tion and globalisation are placing small farmers under
the region is experiencing a dramatic increase in the ever-increasingpressureandareleadingtoariseintheir
growth of “palma africana” (Elaeis guineensis), an ex- vulnerability.Primarycareforfamiliesisbecomingcon-
port-orientatedmonoculture.Itcanbeseenasasucces- stantlymoreprecariouswiththecombinationofshrink-
sor to the banana and is being marketed by PALMA ingsalariesandanincreaseinthecostofliving.Asare-
TICA,asubsidiaryofUnitedBrands.Inadditiontothe sult,localactorsareoftenforcedtomakeunsustainable
largestrainimposedontheenvironmentbytheplanta- economicdecisionsinordertosurvive.
tioneconomy,therecurrenceofverticaldependenceon
Inallpreviousperiodsandphases,alargeamountof
export-orientated,multinationalcorporationsisagrave
heteronomyandanextremepowergapbetweenglobal
problem.
actorsandthelocalpopulationwasnoticeable.Theini-
TheotherinfluentialfactorinLaGambaistheat- tialobjectiveoftheRdÖProject,achievingequalitybe-
tempt to strengthen the ecotourism industry with the tween ecological conservation of the plentiful tropical
goal of creating a viable alternative for regional devel- rainforest and local population’s economic and social
opment.Deficienttourisminfrastructureandthemini- needs,couldnotbefullyrealised.Additionally,thereis
malprofitsmadebythevillagecommunityitselfoneco- minimalpotentialforthelocalpopulationandtheagri-
tourismdonotprovideaneconomicallyefficientalter- cultural cooperatives to attain a measure of power and
nativetotraditionalagricultureand,asaresult,cannot initiateanalternativesystemofproductionthatfavours
be considered sustainable. Nonetheless, the initiatives sustainabledevelopment.Instead,thetraditional,verti-
of the RdÖ and the Fundación Neotrópica have made caldependenceofsmallfarmsontheworldmarketcon-
possible the creation of the local co-operatives (ASO- tinuestogrow.
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Acknowledgements
IwouldliketothankM.Coyforvaluablecontribu-
tion and motivating discussions, A. Weissenhofer and
W.HuberforfacilitatingtheresearchworkinLaGam-
ba,andR.Espinoza(UCR)andL.Nouriforcontinuous
support.
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