Table Of ContentUniversity of Wollongong
Research Online
University of Wollongong Thesis Collection University of Wollongong Thesis Collections
2014
Career anchors and job satisfaction: the role of
psychological empowerment in the Indonesian
public university context
M Meiliani
University of Wollongong
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School of Management, Operations and Marketing
CAREER ANCHORS AND JOB SATISFACTION:
THE ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL EMPOWERMENT
IN THE INDONESIAN PUBLIC UNIVERSITY CONTEXT
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
from
University of Wollongong
by
M E I L I A N I
2014
i
CERTIFICATION
I, Meiliani, certify that this thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
the award of Doctor of Philosophy of the School of Management, Operations and
Marketing, the University of Wollongong, is wholly my own work unless otherwise
referenced or acknowledged. The document has not been submitted for qualifications at
any other academic institution.
M e i l i a n i
30 March 2014
ii
ABSTRACT
The current study aims to examine the direct and indirect effects of psychological
empowerment in the relationship between career anchors and job satisfaction within the
context of public universities in Indonesia. Schein’s (1978) single career anchors theory,
Feldman and Bolino’s (1996) multiple career anchors model, Spreitzer’s (1975)
psychological empowerment concept and Locke’s (1976) job satisfaction model were
used to form the framework for the study. Concurrent embedded mixed-methods
(Creswell & Plano Clark 2011) were employed, in which both quantitative and
qualitative data were gathered and analysed. Full-time academics from Indonesian
public universities formed the sample for this study. Using web-based and paper-based
surveys, data were gathered from 585 academics of 11 universities across three
geographical regions (western, central and eastern) of Indonesia. Twenty academics
participated in structured face-to-face interviews. Quantitative data were gathered using
a survey questionnaire that comprised items from Igbaria and Baroudi’s (1993) career
anchor inventory, Sprietzer’s (1995) psychological empowerment scale and Hackman
and Oldham’s (1975) general job satisfaction scale. Finally, Schein’s (1990) protocol
interview and two open-ended questions were used to collect qualitative data.
Exploratory factor analysis was employed to examine the factor structure underlying the
three constructs. Twelve factors emerged from the quantitative data, with the analyses
finding two new anchors, which were labelled work dedication and balanced-lifestyle.
Overall, the other factors were the same as originally constructed from past research.
The final factor clusters were used to determine the dominant career anchors using
frequency count, and were also used in subsequent hierarchical multiple regression
analysis when testing the proposed hypotheses. Thematic analysis was employed to
identify themes from the qualitative data.
The data analyses revealed several significant results. First, the economic security and
service anchors emerged as the most dominant career anchors. Second, the needs-based
anchors category was the most preferred groups-based anchor among the respondents.
Third, the study found that multiple career anchors existed amongst the participants.
Finally, the study also found that all career anchor relationship pairs were grouped in
complementary relationship pairing anchors. Statistically, the results indicate that work
dedication, managerial competence and pure challenge predicted job satisfaction.
Furthermore, meaning and impact predicted job satisfaction. Meaning mediated
partially and significantly the effects of work dedication, balanced-lifestyle, managerial
competence and pure challenge on job satisfaction; impact mediated partially and
significantly the effects of both work dedication and managerial competence on job
satisfaction. Meaning and competence moderated balanced-lifestyle and job satisfaction
relationship; impact moderated service and job satisfaction relationship; self-
determination moderated the service, balanced-lifestyle and pure challenge effect on
job satisfaction. Meaning mediated and moderated the balanced-lifestyle effect on job
satisfaction. Thematic analysis identified academic atmosphere, academic freedom and
creativity, work-family lifestyle, flexible working schedule, skill orientation, running a
business, spiritual value and intangible recognition as new anchors. Personal integrity,
and motivation and goal orientation were found to reflect the psychological
empowerment facets while happiness reflected the job satisfaction dimension.
Organisational factors were identified as most influential themes in career development.
Based on the findings, a modified framework was proposed.
iii
The findings support and extend the existing knowledge in several ways. First, the new
anchor categories, the dominant career anchors, the existence of multiple anchors and
complementary anchors contribute to the value of the career anchors concept, and the
prediction of a shift in anchor structures. Therefore, more studies are needed to help
explicate the value of the career anchors concept as well as help in understanding the
shift in career anchors structures. Second, findings from this study help extend the
understanding of the concepts of career anchors, psychological empowerment and job
satisfaction within a non-Western context, that is, public universities of Indonesia.
Third, using data gathered from academics working in public universities adds to the
understanding of the three concepts and the existing theories related to self-concept at
the workplace. Fourth, the identification of new themes and the emergence of
psychological empowerment and job satisfaction dimensions show that the qualitative
study supports the quantitative analysis findings. Fifth, cultural values are evident
throughout the results showing the need to take into consideration the role and effects of
culture during future research on career anchors. Sixth, the identification of the spiritual
values theme needs an in-depth exploration to see whether it adds to career anchors
concept or is just a reflection of the influence of the participants’ religious inclinations.
Finally, the current study extends the career anchor, psychological empowerment and
job satisfaction theories used by recommending a need to investigate more job
outcomes, such as job stress and strain, disciplines, organisational commitment and job
performance.
The current study also suggests several future research directions. Future researchers are
encouraged to test the proposed modified framework. The emergence of a new career
anchor and the identified themes need to be analysed in greater detail. To enable
generalisability of this study across a variety of organisational contexts, it is
recommended that future studies on career anchors are carried out across many public
and private universities and across many geographical locations. Finally, the current
study encourages researchers to test a comparative model by treating career anchors as
mediators or moderators to find out what roles career anchors might play.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the process of writing this thesis, I got a lot of support from various parties. I would
like to thank people who have supported me throughout my thesis journey.
I would like to thank the Australian Development Scholarship (ADS) - AusAID that
provided me with a scholarship to study towards the PhD degree, and especially to
Nhan Nguyen, the Australia Awards Scholarships Contact Officer at the University of
Wollongong, who has always assisted me with all administrative matters related to my
study.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Associate Professor Sam
Garrett-Jones and Associate Professor Mario Fernando. Your feedback, thoughtful
discussions and suggestions for improving the quality of my thesis are invaluable.
Thank you for providing a professional supervision climate. I will take your feedback as
a lesson learned and try to apply in my workplace.
I would like to thank several Indonesian universities who granted me access to their
academic staff and facilitated the process of survey questionnaires and interview
administration. I am also grateful to the administrators of the Indonesian academics
email list and the Indonesian Students Association based in Australia (PPIA) that
allowed me to conduct the online survey. Your assistance is very much appreciated.
I would like also to thank my volunteer research assistants who distributed the hard
copy of the questionnaires to academics where they worked and ensured a high response
rate.
Special thanks to academics who were the subjects of this study both at the pilot study
stage and during the actual study. Thank you so much for your time and willingness to
fill out the questionnaire and to be interviewed. Without your participation, this study
could not have been possible. Your contribution is greatly appreciated.
I would like also acknowledging Professor HL Mikarsa (UI), Steve A. Nicks (English
teacher in Indonesia), Dr. J. Sitompoel (ITB) and Bu Y. Chanafiah (Bahasa Indonesia -
Unib), for their discussions of the translated questionnaires and the interview protocol.
Their suggestions helped to enhance the quality of the translation.
I thank Associate Professor Marijka Batterham, the Director of the Statistical
Consulting Centre of the University of Wollongong, who provided statistical support for
my data analysis.
I would like to thank Dr. Shahriar Akter (University of Wollongong) for reviewing my
Quantitative Analysis Results Chapter. Your suggestions give extra weight to the
analysis. I greatly appreciate it.
I acknowledge the professional editorial assistance of Laura E. Goodin.
I am also grateful to Dr. Gandhi (Unpar) who kindly provided his time and expertise
during the preliminary data analysis, and to Bu Ira (UI), pak Lie (Unud), and Professor
Max Pattinama (Unpatti) who assisted me during the data collection stage. I am greatly
appreciative of your help.
v
My sincere thanks also go to Phyllis Tibbs who assisted me to proofread my thesis
chapters without charge. Thank you for your time and support as it has greatly aided my
study. I am also grateful to Bernard Tibbs for his social and spiritual encouragement
during my study. I will miss you both.
To Associate Professor Rodney Clarke, thank you for your professional advice, and
help me when I was struggling with my study.
A special thanks to the family of Dr. Buyung Kosasih, Ana Suwarto and Peter Kosasih,
for their encouragement and support throughout my study. Their moral and social
support helped me to focus on my study. Thank you for your care and patience, and for
finding time to talk to me. I will miss your yummy food, ci Ana.
To my family, Yenny, Okta, Judist, Yana, and Vio for their moral support, thank you
for being there when I need you.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE i
CERTIFICATION ii
ABSTRACT iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xii
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Purpose of the study 1
1.2 Background of the study 2
1.3 Career development of academics in Indonesian public university context 4
1.3.1Overview of Indonesia 4
1.3.2 Public higher education systems in Indonesia 5
1.3.3 Academic career promotion system 9
1.4 Problem statement 13
1.5 Significance of the study 15
1.6 Outline of the study 16
Chapter 2
Literature Review and Conceptual Framework 18
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Understanding of career: Internal and external career perspectives 18
2.3 Introducing the career anchors theory 21
2.3.1 Dimensions of career anchors 22
2.3.2 Explaining multiple career anchors 25
2.3.3 Factor structures underlying the career anchors 26
2.3.4 Review of studies on career anchors 28
2.4 Redefining the career anchor concept 30
2.4.1 Feldman and Bolino’s concept of career anchors 30
2.4.2 Regrouping career anchor dimensions 32
2.4.3 Career anchor relationship pairs 34
2.5 Job satisfaction and career anchors 36
2.6 Psychological empowerment and job satisfaction 39
2.7 Linking career anchors, psychological empowerment and job satisfaction 43
2.8 The role of demographic data 44
2.9 Conceptual framework and research model 47
2.10 Hypotheses testing 51
Chapter 3
Research Methodology 55
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Methodological approach 56
3.3 Research design 58
3.3.1 Survey research 62
3.3.1.1 Survey questionnaire 62
3.3.1.2 Interview 65
3.3.2 Sampling selection and sample size 67
3.3.2.1 Quantitative sampling design 70
3.3.2.2 Qualitative sampling design 72
3.4 Research instruments 73
3.4.1 Instrument development 73
vii
3.4.2 Demographic profiles 76
3.4.3 Schein’s interview protocol 77
3.4.4 Issues on culture related to translated instruments 78
3.5 Data collection method 80
3.5.1 Pre-testing the survey instrument 80
3.5.2 Data Collection procedures 81
3.5.3 Testing validity and reliability in measurement 83
3.6 Data analysis design 87
3.6.1 Statistical analysis design 87
3.6.2 Thematic analysis 91
Chapter 4 Results of Quantitative Analysis 94
4.1 Introduction 94
4.2 Data screening and response rate 94
4.2.1 Paper-based survey 95
4.2.2 Web-based survey 96
4.3 Demographic findings 98
4.4 Construct validity of survey questionnaires 102
4.5 Internal consistency of instruments 107
4.6 Dimensionality of career anchors, psychological empowerment and job 109
satisfaction
4.7 Dominant career anchors 113
4.7.1 Single dominant career anchor 113
4.7.2 Multiple groups-based dominant career anchors 115
4.8 Testing of the research model 118
4.8.1 Testing of assumptions of hierarchical multiple regression analysis 120
4.8.2 Testing the main effects of career anchors and psychological 121
empowerment on job satisfaction
4.8.2.1 The relationship between career anchors and job 121
satisfaction
4.8.2.2 The relationship between career anchors and psychological 123
empowerment
4.8.2.3 The relationship between psychological empowerment 129
and job satisfaction
4.8.2.4 Joint relationship career anchors, psychological 131
empowerment and job satisfaction
4.8.3 Testing of the mediation of psychological empowerment in the 132
career anchors and job satisfaction relationship
4.8.4 The moderation effects of psychological empowerment 138
Chapter 5 Academics’ Perceptions of the Career Anchors 154
5.1 Introduction 154
5.2 Framework for the qualitative analysis 155
5.3 Interview and open-ended questions responses 157
5.4 Thematic analysis of the understanding of academics’ career anchors in 158
achieving career goals
5.5 Thematic analysis of the career history: findings from interviews 160
5.5.1 Demographic profiles 160
5.5.2 Thematic categories 161
5.5.3 Identified macro themes 162
5.5.4 Identified micro themes: personal bias and dominant 162
career anchor
viii
Description:job satisfaction theories used by recommending a need to investigate more job outcomes mediators or moderators to find out what roles career anchors might play. Job satisfaction is measured with the general job satisfaction.