Campbell's Physiology Notes

810 Pages·2010·19.96 MB·English

by  John Campbell

Campbell’s
Physiology
Notes
John Campbell
liver
hepatic duct
cystic duct
common bile duct
gall bladder
duodenum
pancreas
sphincter of Oddi
ampulla
Table of Contents
Acknowledgements
Introduction

Chapter 1 Cells and Tissues
Introduction
Cells, tissues and organisation
Cell organelles
Cell Membrane
Cytosol
Cytoskeleton
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes
Golgi complex
Mitochondria
Lysosomes
Peroxisomes
Nucleus
Chromosomes
Nucleolus
Specialised cells
Cell reproduction
Mitosis
Meiosis
Cells and ageing
Cells and enzymes
Metabolism
Tissues
Epithelial tissue
Muscle tissue
Nervous tissue
Essential science - diffusion and osmosis
Diffusion
Osmosis
Cells, tissues and fluids
Importance of fluid compartmentalisation

Chapter 2 Cardiovascular System
Basic structure of the heart
The wall of the heart is in three layers
Heart valves ensure one way flow of blood
Blood flow through the heart
Atrial function
Ventricular function
The cardiac cycle
Systole and diastole
Heart sounds
Blood circulation through the lungs and around the body
Circulation of blood through the coronary arteries
The internal electrical conducting system
The PQRST as seen using an electrocardiograph
Effects of exercise
Regular exercise is good
Blood vessels
Arteries
Arterioles
Arterioles and control of blood pressure
Capillaries
Tissue fluid formation and reabsorption
Gaseous exchange between capillary blood and tissue cells
Veins
Deep and superficial venous systems
Mechanisms facilitating return of venous blood to the heart
Clinical applications of venous return physiology
Portal veins

Chapter 3 Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system
Lymphatic drainage structures
Lymphatic capillaries drain the tissues
Afferent lymphatic vessels transport lymphatic fluid towards lymph nodes
Lymph nodes filter lymphatic fluid
Efferent lymphatic vessels transport lymphatic fluid away from lymph nodes
Other lymphatic tissues
Spleen holds a reserve of red and white blood cells
T lymphocytes mature in the thymus gland
The tonsils
Diffuse lymphatic tissue

Chapter 4 Blood
Blood volumes vary with body size
Plasma
Plasma proteins
Nutrients and waste products
Other plasma components and functions
Blood cells
Red blood cells are erythrocytes
White blood cells are leucocytes
Neutrophils
Eosinophils
Basophils
Lymphocytes
Monocytes
Monocyte-macrophage cell system
Thrombocytes
Phagocytosis is cell eating
ABO Rhesus system of blood grouping
Rhesus factor
Rhesus factor incompatibility in pregnancy and neonates
Haemostasis
Vascular spasm
Platelet plugging
Coagulation cascade
Breakdown of blood clot

Chapter 5 Respiratory System
Introduction
Structures of the respiratory system
Nose and mouth
Sinuses
Pharynx
Larynx
Epiglottis
Respiratory lining
Trachea
Bronchial tubes
Bronchioles
Bronchial diameters
Alveoli
Blood and lymphatic vessels
Muscles associated with ventilation
Inspiration
Expiration
Pleural membranes
Ventilatory volumes
Cough reflex
Gaseous exchange
Blood flow through the lungs
Transport of gases in blood
Regulation of respiration
Essential science
Elements
Compounds
Chemical reactions
Internal respiration
ATP and ADP
Hypoxia

Chapter 6 Nervous System
Introduction
Nerve cells
Motor neurones
Sensory neurones
Relay neurones
Myelin
Essential science
Atoms are electrically neutral
Ions have an electrical charge
Neuronal transmission
Speed of a nerve impulse
The synapse
Chemical transmitters carry an impulse across the synaptic gap
The reflex arc
The brain
Neuroglia
Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Diencephalon
Brain stem
Cranial nerves
Spinal cord
Protection of the central nervous system
Meninges
Blood brain barrier
Autonomic nervous system
Sympathetic
Parasympathetic
Repair of the nervous system
Sleep
Stages of sleep
Possible reasons for sleep
Circadian Rhythm
A developing field

Chapter 7 Endocrine System
Types of gland
Exocrine glands
Endocrine glands
Signals and receptors
Endocrine glands
Pituitary gland
Posterior pituitary hormones
Oxytocin
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Anterior pituitary
Anterior pituitary function is controlled by the hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary hormones
Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinising hormone (LH)
Prolactin
Growth hormone (GH)
Thyroid gland
Thyroid hormones
Calcitonin
Parathyroid glands
Parathyroid hormone
Pancreas
Pancreatic islets
Insulin from beta cells will lower blood glucose levels
Glucagon will raise blood glucose levels
Insulin lack will cause hyperglycaemia
Adrenal glands
Adrenal cortical hormones
Aldosterone
Adrenal medullary hormones
Stress
Kidneys
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Calcitriol
Gonads
Ovarian hormones
Testicular hormones
Other endocrine glands
Thymus gland
Pineal gland

Chapter 8 Digestive System
Introduction
Structures of the digestive system
Layers composing the wall of the digestive tract
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscular layer
Serosa
Peritoneum
Mesentery
Omentum
Gastrointestinal regulation
Appetite
Peristalsis
Digestion
Mechanical digestion
Chemical digestion uses digestive enzymes
Mouth
Teeth
Saliva
Eating and swallowing
Oesophagus
Stomach
Basic structure
Mucosa lines the inside of the stomach
Gastric regulation
Mechanical and chemical digestion in the stomach
Absorption from the stomach
Vomiting is an important defence mechanism
Liver and pancreas
Regulation of the liver and pancreas
Chemical digestion in the small intestine
Digestion of proteins
Digestion of carbohydrates
Digestion of lipids
Intestinal juice
Absorption of nutrients
Essential science
Fat and water solubility
Mechanisms of absorption
Secretion and reabsorption
Colon
Components of the colon
Absorption from the colon
Motility of the colon
Diarrhoea is an important defense mechanism
The appendix probably has a function

Chapter 9 Liver
Introduction
Blood supply
Structure related to function
Position
The liver is arranged in four lobes
The liver contains thousands of lobules
Sinusoids are the hepatic capillaries
Hepatic macrophage system
Canaliculi are the bile carrying channels
The liver produces a lot of lymph
Bile
Liver functions
Carbohydrate metabolism
Fat metabolism
Protein metabolism
Formation of plasma proteins, including clotting proteins
Production of urea
Storage of nutrients
Breakdown of toxins and drugs
Generation of heat

Chapter 10 Renal and Urinary Systems
The kidneys
Macroscopic renal structure
Renal blood supply
Microscopic renal structure - the nephrons
Formation of urine
Endothelial-capsular membrane
Ultrafiltration from the glomerulus into the capsular space
Tubular reabsorption from the nephrons back into the blood
Essential science – ions and electrolytes
Selective reabsorption and homeostasis
Mechanisms of reabsorption
Plasma is ‘cleaned’ 60 times a day
Tubular secretion occurs directly from the capillaries into the nephrons
Essential science - acids and alkalis
Urine
Normal urine
Urine volumes
Obligatory urine volume
Abnormal urine
Water balance
The hypothalamus controls thirst and ADH secretion
Homeostasis of blood pressure
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA)
Renal endocrine functions
Activation of vitamin D
Erythropoietin stimulates formation of erythrocytes
The urinary tract
Ureters transport urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder
Prevention of reflux from the bladder back into the ureters
Urinary bladder
The urethra drains urine from the bladder out of the body
Sphincters retain and allow the release of urine
Passing urine

Chapter 11 Skin
Introduction
Epidermis
Epidermal-dermal junction
Epidermal turnover constantly renews the epidermis
Epidermis is a stratified, keratinized, squamous epithelium
Epidermal lipids hold keratinocytes together and provide waterproofing
Synthesis of Vitamin D in the epidermis
Epidermal melanocytes produce melanin
Dermis
Fibroblasts secrete the intercellular components
Collagen is a tough structural protein
Dermal water
Elastic fibres provide elasticity
Hair follicles house the hair shafts
Hair
Sebaceous glands produce sebum
Sweat glands produce sweat
Nerve endings facilitate tactile sensation
Dermal blood vessels
Dermal lymphatic vessels
Hypodermis is the layer below the dermis
Age related changes
Skin colour is an important clinical observation
Pallor
Flushing
Cyanosis
Jaundice

Chapter 12 Thermoregulation
Introduction
Mechanisms of heat gain
Metabolic processes generate heat
Heat gain from the environment
Heat retention in the body
Mechanisms of heat loss
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Body temperature
Core temperature
Peripheral temperature
Temperature detection within the body
When core temperature rises
Behavioural change
Sweating
Failure to lower body temperature will cause hyperthermia
Fever
When core temperature falls
Behavioural change
Arterial vasoconstriction reduces blood flow to the periphery
Venoconstriction
Contraction of hair erector muscles
Shivering generates a lot of heat
Metabolic (non-shivering) thermogenesis
Failure to maintain body temperature will cause hypothermia
The body is economical in using water or energy reserves
Alcohol and anaesthesia

Chapter 13 Musculoskeletal System
Functions of bones
Long bone macroscopic structure
Bone tissue
Compact bone
Cancellous (spongy bone)
Bone cells
Bone mass and exercise
Bone growth
Classification of bones
The skeleton
Joints
Fibrous joints
Cartilaginous joints
Synovial joints
Types of synovial joint
Ball and socket joints
Hinge joints
Pivot joints
Condyloid joints
Saddle joints
Gliding joints
Problems with joints
Skeletal muscles
Functions of skeletal muscles
Movement
Tendons and ligaments
Bursae
Origin and insertion of muscles
Rigor mortis develops after death

Chapter 14 Male Reproductive System
Scrotum
Testes are the male gonads
Spermatogenesis is the process of sperm production and occurs in the seminiferous tubules
Spermatic cord
Sperm (spermatozoa) are the male gametes
Sperm and seminal fluid ducts
Straight tubules and rete testis