Cambridge Aerospace Series

650 Pages·2010·14.3 MB·English

by  Ajoy Kumar Kundu

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AIRCRAFT DESIGN
AircraftDesignexplorestheconceptualphaseofafixed-wingaircraft
designproject.Designinganaircraftisacomplex,multifacetedprocess
that embraces many technical challenges in a multidisciplinary envi-
ronment. By definition, the topic requires intelligent use of aerody-
namic knowledgeto configureaircraftgeometry suited specificallyto
acustomer’sdemands.Itinvolvesconfiguringaircraftshape,estimat-
ing its weight and drag, and computing the available thrust from the
matched engine. The methodology includes formal sizing of the air-
craft,enginematching,andsubstantiatingperformancetocomplywith
a customer’s demands and government regulatory standards. Associ-
atedtopicsincludesafetyissues;environmentalissues;materialchoice;
structurallayout;andunderstandingtheflightdeck,avionics,andsys-
tems(forbothcivilandmilitaryaircraft).Costestimationandmanu-
facturingconsiderationsalsoarediscussed.Thechaptersarearranged
to optimize understanding of industrial approaches to aircraft-design
methodology. Example exercises based on the author’s industrial
experience with typical aircraft design are included. Additional sec-
tionsspecifictomilitaryaircrafthighlightedwithanasteriskareavail-
ableontheWebatwww.cambridge.org/Kundu
Ajoy Kumar Kundu was educated in India (Jadavpur University),
the United Kingdom (Cranfield University and Queen’s University
Belfast),andtheUnitedStates(UniversityofMichiganandStanford
University). His experience spans nearly thirty years in the aircraft
industry and fifteen years in academia. In India, he was Professor at
the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur; and Chief Aircraft
DesigneratHindustanAeronauticsLtd.,Bangalore.InNorthAmer-
ica, he was Research Engineer for the Boeing Aircraft Company,
Renton,andIntermediateEngineerforCanadairLtd., Montreal.He
began his aeronautical career in the United Kingdom with Short
Brothers and Harland Ltd., retiring from Bombardier Aerospace-
Shorts, Belfast, as Chief Assistant Aerodynamicist. He is currently
associated with Queen’s University Belfast. He held British, Indian,
and Canadian private pilot licenses. He is a Fellow of the Royal
Aeronautical Society and the Institute of Mechanical Engineers and
an Associate Fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics.
CambridgeAerospaceSeries
EditorsWeiShyyandMichaelJ.Rycroft
1. J.M.RolfeandK.J.Staples(eds.):FlightSimulation
2. P.Berlin:TheGeostationaryApplicationsSatellite
3. M.J.T.Smith:AircraftNoise
4. N.X.Vinh:FlightMechanicsofHigh-PerformanceAircraft
5. W.A.MairandD.L.Birdsall:AircraftPerformance
6. M.J.AbzugandE.E.Larrabee:AirplaneStabilityandControl
7. M.J.Sidi:SpacecraftDynamicsandControl
8. J.D.Anderson:AHistoryofAerodynamics
9. A.M.Cruise,J.A.Bowles,C.V.Goodall,andT.J.Patrick:PrinciplesofSpaceInstru-
mentDesign
10. G.A.KhouryandJ.D.Gillett(eds.):AirshipTechnology
11. J.Fielding:IntroductiontoAircraftDesign
12. J.G.Leishman:PrinciplesofHelicopterAerodynamics,2ndEdition
13. J.KatzandA.Plotkin:LowSpeedAerodynamics,2ndEdition
14. M.J.AbzugandE.E.Larrabee:AirplaneStabilityandControl:AHistoryoftheTech-
nologiesthatMadeAviationPossible,2ndEdition
15. D.H.HodgesandG.A.Pierce:IntroductiontoStructuralDynamicsandAeroelasticity
16. W.Fehse:AutomaticRendezvousandDockingofSpacecraft
17. R.D.Flack:FundamentalsofJetPropulsionwithApplications
18. E.A.Baskharone:PrinciplesofTurbomachineryinAir-BreathingEngines
19. D.D.Knight:NumericalMethodsforHigh-SpeedFlows
20. C.Wagner,T.Hu¨ttl,andP.Sagaut:Large-EddySimulationforAcoustics
21. D.Joseph,T.Funada,andJ.Wang:PotentialFlowsofViscousandViscoelasticFluids
22. W.Shyy,Y.Lian,H.Liu,J.Tang,andD.Viieru:AerodynamicsofLowReynoldsNum-
berFlyers
23. J.H.Saleh:AnalysesforDurabilityandSystemDesignLifetime
24. B.K.Donaldson:AnalysisofAircraftStructures,SecondEdition
25. C.Segal:TheScramjetEngine:ProcessesandCharacteristics
26. J.Doyle:GuidedExplorationsoftheMechanicsofSolidsandStructures
27. A.Kundu:AircraftDesign
28. M.Friswell,J.Penny,S.Garvey,andA.Lees:FundamentalsofRotorDynamics
29. B.Conway(ed):SpacecraftTrajectoryOptimization
Aircraft Design
Ajoy Kumar Kundu
Queen’sUniversityBelfast
CAMBRIDGEUNIVERSITYPRESS
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore,
São Paulo, Delhi, Dubai, Tokyo
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521885164
© Ajoy Kundu 2010
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the
provision of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part
may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published in print format 2010
ISBN-13 978-0-511-67785-4 eBook (NetLibrary)
ISBN-13 978-0-521-88516-4 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy
of urls for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication,
and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain,
accurate or appropriate.
Contents
ListofSymbolsandAbbreviations pagexxi
Preface xxxi
RoadMapoftheBook xxxv
TheArrangement xxxv
SuggestedRoutefortheCoursework xxxix
SuggestionsfortheClass xli
UseofSemi-empiricalRelations xlii
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Overview 1
1.1.1 WhatIstoBeLearned? 1
1.1.2 CourseworkContent 1
1.2 BriefHistoricalBackground 2
1.3 CurrentAircraftDesignStatus 7
1.3.1 ForcesandDrivers 8
1.3.2 CurrentCivilAircraftDesignTrends 9
1.3.3 CurrentMilitaryAircraftDesignTrends∗ 11
1.4 FutureTrends 11
1.4.1 CivilAircraftDesign:FutureTrends 12
1.4.2 MilitaryAircraftDesign:FutureTrends∗ 14
1.5 LearningProcess 15
1.6 UnitsandDimensions 17
1.7 CostImplications 17
2 MethodologytoAircraftDesign,MarketSurvey,and
Airworthiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Overview 19
2.1.1 WhatIstoBeLearned? 20
2.1.2 CourseworkContent 20
2.2 Introduction 20
2.3 TypicalDesignProcess 21
∗ ThesesectionsarefoundontheCambridgeUniversityWebsiteatwww.cambridge.org/Kundu
v
vi Contents
2.3.1 FourPhasesofAircraftDesign 23
2.3.2 TypicalResourcesDeployment 25
2.3.3 TypicalCostFrame 26
2.3.4 TypicalTimeFrame 26
2.4 TypicalTaskBreakdowninEachPhase 26
2.4.1 FunctionalTasksduringtheConceptualStudy
(Phase1:CivilAircraft) 28
2.4.2 ProjectActivitiesforSmallAircraftDesign 29
2.5 AircraftFamiliarization 31
2.5.1 CivilAircraftandItsComponentConfigurations 31
2.5.2 MilitaryAircraftandItsComponentConfigurations∗ 33
2.6 MarketSurvey 33
2.7 CivilAircraftMarket 35
2.7.1 AircraftSpecificationsandRequirementsforThreeCivil
AircraftCaseStudies 36
2.8 MilitaryMarket∗ 39
2.8.1 AircraftSpecifications/RequirementsforMilitaryAircraft
CaseStudies∗ 39
2.9 ComparisonbetweenCivilandMilitaryAircraftDesign
Requirements 40
2.10 AirworthinessRequirements 41
2.11 CourseworkProcedures 42
3 AerodynamicConsiderations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Overview 43
3.1.1 WhatIstoBeLearned? 43
3.1.2 CourseworkContent 44
3.2 Introduction 44
3.3 Atmosphere 46
3.4 FundamentalEquations 48
3.5 AirflowBehavior:LaminarandTurbulent 50
3.5.1 FlowPastAerofoil 55
3.6 AircraftMotionandForces 56
3.6.1 Motion 56
3.6.2 Forces 57
3.7 Aerofoil 58
3.7.1 GroupingsofAerofoilsandTheirProperties 59
3.8 DefinitionsofAerodynamicParameters 62
3.9 GenerationofLift 63
3.10 TypesofStall 65
3.10.1 GradualStall 66
3.10.2 AbruptStall 66
3.11 ComparisonofThreeNACAAerofoils 66
3.12 High-LiftDevices 67
3.13 TransonicEffects–AreaRule 68
∗ ThesesectionsarefoundontheCambridgeUniversityWebsiteatwww.cambridge.org/Kundu
Contents vii
3.14 WingAerodynamics 70
3.14.1 InducedDragandTotalAircraftDrag 73
3.15 AspectRatioCorrectionof2DAerofoilCharacteristicsfor3D
FiniteWing 73
3.16 WingDefinitions 76
3.16.1 PlanformArea,S 76
W
3.16.2 WingAspectRatio 77
3.16.3 WingSweepAngle,(cid:1) 77
3.16.4 WingRoot(c )andTip(c )Chord 77
root tip
3.16.5 WingTaperRatio,λ 77
3.16.6 WingTwist 78
3.16.7 High/LowWing 78
3.16.8 Dihedral/AnhedralAngles 79
3.17 MeanAerodynamicChord 79
3.18 CompressibilityEffect:WingSweep 80
3.19 WingStallPatternandWingTwist 82
3.20 InfluenceofWingAreaandSpanonAerodynamics 83
3.20.1 TheSquare-CubeLaw 84
3.20.2 AircraftWettedArea(A )versusWingPlanform
W
Area(S )8 5
w
3.20.3 AdditionalVortexLift 87
3.20.4 AdditionalSurfacesonWing 87
3.21 FinalizingWingDesignParameters 89
3.22 Empennage 90
3.22.1 H-Tail 90
3.22.2 V-Tail 91
3.22.3 TailVolumeCoefficients 91
3.23 Fuselage 93
3.23.1 FuselageAxis/Zero-ReferencePlane 93
3.23.2 FuselageLength,L 94
fus
3.23.3 FinenessRatio,FR 94
3.23.4 FuselageUpsweepAngle 94
3.23.5 FuselageClosureAngle 94
3.23.6 FrontFuselageClosureLength,L 94
f
3.23.7 AftFuselageClosureLength,L 95
a
3.23.8 MidfuselageConstantCross-SectionLength,L 95
m
3.23.9 FuselageHeight,H 95
3.23.10 FuselageWidth,W 95
3.23.11 AverageDiameter,D 95
ave
3.23.12 CabinHeight,H 96
cab
3.23.13 CabinWidth,W 96
cab
3.23.14 PilotCockpit/FlightDeck 96
3.24 Undercarriage 96
3.25 NacelleandIntake 96
3.26 SpeedBrakesandDiveBrakes 96
viii Contents
4 AircraftClassification,Statistics,andChoicesfor
Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.1 Overview 98
4.1.1 WhatIstoBeLearned? 99
4.1.2 CourseworkContent 99
4.2 Introduction 99
4.3 AircraftEvolution 100
4.3.1 AircraftClassificationandTheirOperational
Environment 101
4.4 CivilAircraftMission(Payload-Range) 104
4.5 CivilSubsonicJetAircraftStatistics(SizingParametersand
RegressionAnalysis) 105
4.5.1 MaximumTakeoffMassversusNumberofPassengers 106
4.5.2 MaximumTakeoffMassversusOperationalEmptyMass 107
4.5.3 MaximumTakeoffMassversusFuelLoad 108
4.5.4 MaximumTakeoffMassversusWingArea 109
4.5.5 MaximumTakeoffMassversusEnginePower 111
4.5.6 EmpennageAreaversusWingArea 112
4.5.7 WingLoadingversusAircraftSpan 113
4.6 CivilAircraftComponentGeometries 113
4.7 FuselageGroup 114
4.7.1 FuselageWidth 114
4.7.2 FuselageLength 117
4.7.3 Front(NoseCone)andAft-EndClosure 117
4.7.4 FlightCrew(FlightDeck)CompartmentLayout 121
4.7.5 CabinCrewandPassengerFacilities 121
4.7.6 SeatArrangement,Pitch,andPosture(95thPercentile)
Facilities 122
4.7.7 PassengerFacilities 123
4.7.8 CargoContainerSizes 124
4.7.9 Doors–EmergencyExits 125
4.8 WingGroup 126
4.9 EmpennageGroup(CivilAircraft) 128
4.10 NacelleGroup 130
4.11 SummaryofCivilAircraftDesignChoices 133
4.12 MilitaryAircraft:DetailedClassification,EvolutionaryPattern,
andMissionProfile∗ 134
4.13 MilitaryAircraftMission∗ 134
4.14 MilitaryAircraftStatistics(SizingParameters–Regression
Analysis)∗ 135
4.14.1 MilitaryAircraftMaximumTake-offMass(MTOM)
versusPayload∗ 135
4.14.2 MilitaryMTOMversusOEM∗ 135
4.14.3 MilitaryMTOMversusFuelLoadM∗ 135
f
4.14.4 MTOMversusWingArea(Military)∗ 135
∗ ThesesectionsarefoundontheCambridgeUniversityWebsiteatwww.cambridge.org/Kundu