Byzantium, Britain & the West: The Archaeology of Cultural Identity AD 400-650

131 Pages·2003·134.68 MB·English

by  Anthea Harris

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YZAI{TIIJM
RITAII{
THE WEST
OF CUITUNAL IDENTITY
E ANCHAEOLOGY
400-65o
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ULH
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
INTRODUCTION
THE END OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE
IN THE WESTERN PROVINCES
I heve ittctrrred clcbts t, several people during the prepararion of this book. the fifth century AD, the Roman Empire in'Western Europe fragmented
§ortte hnve generously spent tirue clircussing aspects àr tt. argumenr with me many competing'barbarian' (that is, non-Roman) kingdoms. By about
fltfi i:lrçtlng nry,quenrions, .rhers have gone our of their way to herp me in many ateas of the 'W'est the great Roman monumenls were in
le nncl orher nrâterials. In both these respecs, I would r, if they still stood at all: It is usually supposed that this represented
E :hrnk §utntrne llangert, Lise Bender Jorgensen, Gabriella the end of Roman political influence in the 'West, and that the
§lmon llutenux, Roger Collins, Ken Dark, Simon ' kings were wholly independent of the Roman Empire. Moreover,
€rl§rhl, Hallberg Hâkan, Melanie Hotman, lf Claimed that where Roman culture did survive in these kingdoms, it was
l Hlndl, Jcremy Huggett, Sean Kingsley, as a residue of former generations. Romanitas, it has been said, was
kUçolre Le Saux, Peter Lorimer, tvti.hàl by the new 'Germanic' élites ruling the 'West as a form of 'legitima-
*gtut
Philpoùt, Paul Reynolds, Joanna ' - a political ploy to bolster their tenuous hold on those lands and peoples
,*lËërn Venems Sercombe, Sovati Smith, y under their sway. However, this assumption is not âs clear-cut as it
,.iltddt[, §rlly Worrell and Susan yorngs. seems. In part, the emphasis that has been placed on understanding
eulier ltage of this work, I would end of the Roman Empire' has obscured other strands running through
Frrnklin, Hero Granger-Tâylor, period. Historians and archaeologists alike have been anxious to
lüty
Jonet end Jack Spence. The errors mine when exactly the Roman Empire ended in the different areas of
trrÿ slvn rctponsibili ry. West, or have wanted to clarify the way in which Roman autholify
ptovided me with financial help, for . This is, of course, a legitimate and important concern, but it has \
indebted to the Economic and Social that the same scholars have often overlooked the ways in which the
ffi *l!*n sund of a Post-Doctoral Fellowship enabled Empire in the East was forging new links with the 'West in the latter
tr tlrræforc wish to thank the ESRC, ,ra ,o exrend my of the fifth century. These links would, in some cases, continue through
squor
rnd fiiends ar rhe universiry ofReading (where I helâ Until the sixth, or even seventh, century. It still comes as a surprise to some
Ër their many kindnesses ro me. My finar thanksïusr be ro my ,tO discovqr, for example, that those areas of the British Isles with the least
trmry, who liew supported Àe throughout. nce of en ofhcia!Roman Pre§ence in the third and fourth centuries. may
been those wd which the Eastern Ronran Enrpire ('Byzantium') had
the mosg links in the fifth and sixth centuries,
No contentporary wfitten text gives a definite and unambiguous
ttâtement of the political realiti$ of the inrnrediately 'post-Ronran' West' In
pcrtieular, textuâl sources Ëëldom even allude to the preËhe political relation-
àhipr between WestÉrn barbaricn kingdonm and whât remâined of the ltontatr
\tll,l,tttttl'tW(p',t ct'rlr 'ttlt rtlr r',t tll't.',tr,'tt 'rtlllri ,'ttr trttittct lttlt'(rto Mltrt.rttt',rltrltr,ttl trtul,rr,ttrttrt ptrt'.ttutltrr'',.t lrtltlt,s',lrrlrr,,'nr,l'lrly ', 'rtrro,'r rrrrlr.,r'lrrrrl, rr,tt. r,lll i urrrrtclr,,=l,r,ll1i l lililrlrt r,lt'r l r'lltll,rv ,zrltt,n rrnrvrtrlrr,rtr.rrrtrr, ftrtlnur,ltrrrlltt ltltttrllt,rrlr(l ,'r'llt llorl\l ttttltlill.rlti ltl\t,l l,r'lr",l',l,,u,.it,lllrl,\l ll',,'l,lt1lr.tl'( \tttIrt' t,'rtt'; tlt(ttluilltrtlt lnt(ut 'tl to'llr,'flt tttrtl Y ]ilir lL'lttrt'IttIlIt rrtÿ"lilllr o,l lllll(rl'I'l ltllltolrlltl ' rlrt,tr rltrttttrV v' ttl'rrtrl'l'
ltrrrprrt.' (or'l11,7,1111ittttt') ,rli«'r tlrt'r'gllrtpst.11l llrt.W(,\l llt tlrr. lrltlt ((.,t'ty, lltr,lltutr'llt,,l lrl,rrrr,rtrtl llrt't('\tlll,llll ('\p,lll\t()ll ul tlrt'At'llrr lttlo lltr'llyz'rrrtrrrt'
rrtvttlvtotll'tt''rol l l;trllrgtt''lliyl ilirtt t;:rrrrr'tr l irsri xptolrl itt'ict'r;trtlt,t rrincsil,it lbrrcyf rilurcr( l r(r'n((tl)tn'r('g)nourr(r sl,(r' lnt tr\r slilsr roolu'itlislr oorwrtr rt lrirtr. \llp,,,rlVtrr l.(rrryrr,tl,lr ( t)ll,rnr,,r(rr)r, tltt lllrl,r(ror .r\rryyl,s,\ll (rt 'tlltllltlot,' Mrr.lrtltt'tltllltt ltt''tttlt,l llli(lt',,tlltrltlt, 't t'o)( . i ,Sstrrlrttr,rltlityrlr.tg 'tNtir'trtlrr rtr.lv lrlAl ;Arrrtg lrrl'iovtr'*rrSs; r:lrrtlx'tl«li roltitrl r'ltlrullrtlcycl
lltt'st'vt'rrtlt ('('ntury.'l'lris Irrrrpirc, which incluclctl rrrotft.'r'rr lirrkcy, (]rcccc, Itorrr,rrr ('( !r,.lv('
Syri.r. tlrt' lloly l.rrrrl, Egypt ancl parts of Italy, co-existccl with thc barbarian st'rtttlttt'lvt'ttt \vt'lltl.l tt.tllt 'nvt'st litttrrlrt'tlrt'irtrPcttts ttl bct'ltlttc tltc cctltrouric
kWrrtr'lr'l,t.'lt, rtrrtr sk itrlrlu'ttlkrrcrt tWs cwsct,r eb uotr gszinuclisce md,o asst cteexrttasi nainreg atmhebi gpureocuiss ea nbaotuutr ee voenf thhoewir ,rttrl 1lr)ot'lsitptt;ittlt ,l irr.i (t'vrs( 'to('l :trlrltlt' l lilrltr titlr tt' t.l itlliot tistlrlrtrtsl , Wl)itr'csrt'r'trc's Itypotheses still dominate
lllorctcrri'llio'tlr'tl 'trt't,'r' ' l:rrtrt'(tti 'oliltltrtistop roirssr thdaiipnft ti cbqueulttew,s ettoieo nns atfyoh reth aeEr calehsaatseetro.nllo gMisetds,i tehrisratonreiaanns aanndd athrt eh i-sWto'erisat niss, tlI,tlt'lrri,lrttr.(rr.,; tilll (rt)tl is;,rrrrI rri opt.rlrirrrtrt rll.., s:lr,, itlrt.tr'At.trrrrlr trttroi.t's; ts r;cirtPly,1,,rl lc,r:,rr.l,r rltts:lt tstt'r stllplyc,i.cr'trl'utir rlblolyor ltgthl-t lcitv heteltc tlcA sbnteicccilaenun sote fa inhtd oe wtxht eethn Mdes ep daeicerrivoosadsl
\ln(lylull tlrc lifth to scventh centuries, and it is this question that forms the wotl(ls. llis work llrrs lt«rw irrspir-ctl scvcral gcnerations ofhistorians andârchae-
SIr,rW rt,lt rotrlrcrtkrtolsltr ltlt,'Vt,rtr't'l ÿrlt r 'slrn,ii'rr ls rlrw'ctsltt{lrt'ltror rcrr:rrrtnstr 't rclrlcnIi lsllr sltrvWrvc: culcrEcssr >ss pnleotaor cp(fri sflni otr hthhcree ae dei rvn eRxeoa. o tcmuThuothpre nawil ssenfai ,id b fyttwesorhra ooe idnkcrdil en dbwtngh uc hteipuoli dacrnwsythtt aien oaycrunnn oie dsnntd h t ata ewhnbc edehtws ti wormcberheeilkdie gt i-wnnoiso defeu teihmvvsneei adn n'ntfuethayhgae1 olp 1c Etrte'iehoaanvetfstii muootetrunheyrs)ens. nl"y,Mt'lh,.,'r.l|ro.trp\rrrrruq.rtts.rr'.rorrri.trsr,svr.,'yt tkct'l.(ttr"')l'l; , ,'rl ,slrsr tit(y sup)l r (lrc:illryrlrcr ,r tr{.r.ts-clrlLl r rrctcsic"r lt-olrwit,rl r<rrcw1tr>yxu*ssot,li î,ccrit.nakcl,l1l tcl 'w l r htctlrbrlisrsliayccctna<l rctry lhcrt lyathder r erg iedtbvennuaa-dtstrs eic ntgsia ng eqlren u e tEegaharaunneadrrt tdio sitoliipeonencengs'osag n ton-ihdlna fe t hseh ntinrasieenaltswgfot ut o r rtyidfern a â ti nhanttahsen f ed pott'h arwPsmarceitrtiaonc eptwutinoieleena nrtoreshe.f
,rttrl slrt't'ific tyl)cs of material culture (such as architecture and metalwork). l,rr,. Arrtr,lrrity, rrrtcl has phcecl archaeologists at their forefront"When Pirenne
silrllrrtv,wtcpcsirtvriugc rrtrl,tr cri 'ttt 'ltirtslc trt utcrru<c>l frworrrop crtlthdsei tsethe ra oct aleetem gtehorrgaieets d t hoinef tehEveaid'Wsetneecrsnet aMtfotee brd etith eberr rofaiufntgheh actn et noptgulearytyh.e eTdrh tiinos Irrr6vrrrsrort1otc.r, lirrlr.re;irstll ,. n sFlrrlycs,wi stot cn rtlilaarclt c *wr,iracralk lr,th et nholeaf iesnvtsui ddaeypn poceef a Lfrraeotdem t Aoena trsilqiueurrv itRiyvoe hm afradon tm oc e btneht uaprtire impse' arBrioiuldyt
tr tlrt' gorrl tlr:rt tlris b<tok seeks to achieve.2 t,,.l,ry tlrt.sittrrrti«>rr fias charrged dranratically: the vast majoriry of the available
ll sltorrkl lrc strcssccl rt the outset that this is not a complete survey of all t.vitlcrrr.c is 1rc:hac<tfutgical, and this has provided us with radical new perspec-
llturt'r,tlr'1'-ot ics ol'tttrrtcriirl that may point to East-West contact; far from it. tivcs 1ln tlrc rtratcrial culture of the many peoples of late antique Europe and
(r r),rlrn lnlrrrr' r('oton,trt, us'ry.,lt .ttltrito.r rc conf ttrhael smubajteecrita ml tahtatet rm oigf htth eb eb eomokp loisy eedx pinlo rtehdis wwaityh. tlrc MIct tliistc rrrrrar:hllrctca<llt l<wtts>icrlacll ,lnlraotreer igael ntehraaltly f'1orms, therefore, the main source of
\1tcr tlir lltt'tttt'r;rt1'l)ulsuc(l with the intention of setting out â hypothesis that ctrvl'ittllrtr.llcscc wrrsrcitrlt cirlt) tsfi(i)st lrbcoeos kt.h Oatf scuorrv.rirvsee, aits isc oimntpcomrtpaonrta rnyo tw titon ensesgelse ctto t hteh ev alalutee
rl'rllilr,llntrttq rl'ltrr trllrturt\rt lr l,lrrrvrt'r, trr'tryklr riwrtlrr itlt'sll riistst s ocb [otchoveiksde ei nna cnmed oofrrteoh medre bctaoaittleh ag noEdraie sttso a onsfdh e eWvdi deliesgtn.h cItet oitsno t oteh xebpe lvo hareoli dpteihredy ,t1lrlrt.ir(ulur.ctl rW«rctlsst , tltcrvuetl <t1h1c'rsccc l of<ftter nt hneeirw layn-aavlyasiilsa,b lseo ndleattiam, easn dy itehled sao pvheisryti cdaitfifoenre notf
(rrt otlrr'nvrrt') ol' tlris lrypothesis. pit.ttrrc t«l thlrt ctrvisltgccl lry l)irctrne <lr itrfcrretl lrotn texts.' \
'l'lttottpllrotrt tlrt' twentieth century, archaeologists and historians carne l,lc«lrr1ltrrit. coptjlllitics [ctwccrr thc Lrttc llotrrltn period (prior to c.400)
ittr lt',utttpr,ly to rt'rtlisc the centrality of the fifth to seventh centuries for under- ;rlrl l.ittc Arrtitltrity wcrc tl)Ç llrirrt'iplrl t«lci ot-l)ircltttc''s work' These can âlso
lrt' t't' cxlttttirrt'tl irr tllt' ligtlt <lf'ltrt'ltrtt'tllouit'lrl cvitlt'tlt'c' l)ltttcrlts of production'
rt,ur(lurl"i, rrrrrt lr rrrorc wide-ranging themes relating to the Roman world and the
i,t llltlts ol.tttcrlicvul Europe and the Middle East. It is in these centuries that we tlistrihrrtierr rrrrrl t'xt.llurli(,('illr [rt'irk'rrtilit'rl rrsirrl; ttttttt'riltl cvitlctlce ând these
riItlttrtt't't r,'r,t'r'itv,ltvt,otttl'trtg ltrtrrt'tstot 'ittowlttl rtl;'wl ttt' tlr«t)llrrr ftk irislrk. l lc )AAn()stuwi tcni esl ns'c (,oh )nrrc(ssu' oelbtqfucil'rctre'e<tstn> ctrancencf,r d'trw hrrreeh'r lalis gtut ioobw.;njarcsssc 'ttl ch oo;atftnt c ir srnArttirclrolrr rntpsiltleyalt yniar t.anyrv d'c.c 'esln'nltrriti{tsr.'alg(lt'lru i-orrnnioil' le(eu,cl nlliltn(yl tlrMr'r;rrrr;trrr.rrt' [.lirittl;l ltrrr.trrr.i rr;lrrt.trrtl.i lr kll.(rrirr..t«r.t ,g,lc1i.;tlr ,'o,rrl.rrr.r,rr,oir l. ro.rÿ'rrl r'r,tt,rrlIy.rrlrtl rc't t,i.ols Wr,1rtstrrc tsl'Irrrt',ti.r', l.rr'lltvl]ryttl', tt,tI't t l,tr,t l'tt\xl'lr\ r t-t'l 'otl llrlt: tIrlslt(tl't'(ÿt. ' rt ')trol'rlv \lMli lt lctrtl'tl(trl tiIrtt cp't.rr'lrr vlrlttlvrltl('lc tit'alktltlrlslt'r ( l'lc irt«l crlft l'i ottthlllrrucet'
rv.tvc tll tlt'lr;tlt'tl;tlt's lirrrrr llrr' l().l0s wlrt'rr tlrt'll,'lrir,rrr lrslorr,rrr, I lt.rrli l'irr.lrrrt., (,rtl,,()('\ ,ttt,l yt'rst'lr ( pllllll()lll\i ttll't'lyt'tl tlr ll't"l Wt"'t lt'rrlr''"
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objeertr, BGfu€tureË ancl burlal pfâctieer tr,r* *, Erlan nrle, lpplled to rnateriat elrewhere in the ftrnrrer Itornan worltl have beerr
'l'lrey
enrr nlstr trc synttlrls ut'status arrd itlerrrity, Ar crrch, thsy h*ræ Êhe poterrtill trely lrelptirl iu establislrirrg puttr.t'n* of' rocirl clrarrgc irr thc tiftlr to
tu cotttrirr irrfirrrrrntion abutrç plsg wnys of'tlrotrglrr, hctiefà a[rl valuer, T;lris gives genturier, l'rotrlerrrs lrisirrg ti'urrr virrirtiorrs irr lnctlr(xls inrl:usc lirrritt-
tttetlt att cvell Hrc'iltcr ntlc itt irrvcstigating tlrc nrrtrrre ot'cu6tac6 betwecri tfte tlterefirre, r.rtllor tltitrr rcttrler tlte wltttk su§oct lrcyorttl rcaclt.
llyznntirre Etrrpirc atttl tltc Wcst, for they can - irr prirrciple - tell us atr6ut w[at ' Metlrotlologictrl rnattcrs ilrc not tlrc orrly orrcs thirt rrcccl to bc clarified.
was tttttlerstootl try strch Iirrks. ()bviously, this sort «lf irrfilrrrrutiorr is extrelnely tr ofterr disputc wlrcn thc []yzurrtirrc Ernpirc carrrc iuto existence. The
hartl ftrr tls ttl 'rccess' today, but archaeological theory lras poirrtecl to ways in I llolulrr Hrrrpirc wirs crcatcrl by thc constitutionrrl refirrnrs of Diocletian
whiclr this is not arr irrtpossible task. It is an aspiration that becomes more easily the end of thc. tlrirrl ccntury wherr the Errrpirc wirs clivicled into two adminis-
achicved whcn, as in Late Antiquiry particuiar ÿpes of mareriâl were strictly pArts, Sonte tlrirty ycnrs lltter, Oottstatttilte I set in place some of the most
cttntrclllecl by governments and religious authorities. As such, the presence in tt ft'nturcs tltat tttodcnt scholars associate with the Byzantine Empire.
the wcst of specific materials, such as porphyry (a rype of purpie-coloured g his reign, (lclustarrtirr«>ple becanre the Eastern capital, and that city was
storre) ancl silk, which were under the control of the Byzantine court and its artel subsequcntly clevcloped in a way that reflected the esteem in
ofTicials, rrray indicate not merely trade, but rhe'archaeology of diplomacy,., fhich the Clrristiarr religion wâs now held at an ofiicial level. The move of
Although full of new and perhaps surprising information as we shall see, autltority t«r Oonstantinople also facilitated the dominance of Greek -
tttaterial data are, nonetheless, restricted by practical considerations. The liloitt lartguitgc of the l{oman East - over Latin, although Latin remained a
rre hneology of Late Antiquiry is consrrained by both the qualiry of the dara and of govcntuteut until the mid-sixth century (colour plate 1).
by the variability of its study and publication. Archaeological research does not Herwevcr, it would be nrisleading to use the terms 'Byzantite Empire'
hlve a standardised set ofprocedures and techniques universally applied across §td 'Ealtertt l\«lrttan Ernpire' as synonyms from the 330s onward. Although
the wh«rle of Europe and the Mediterranean, so regional differences 'structure' Dl6cletirur hacl govenrtttental divisions in the Roman Empire, his successors
the clata and limit or enhance how it can be analysed. For example, if a site has dd not always aclhere to these and under Constantine and his sons the Empire
ttot been stratigraphically excavated, the abiliry of any scholar to extract a sense reunited. The fiual division between the Eastern and-Western Empires in
of chronological sequence from ir will be hugely impaired, no mamer how well of govenunent did not come until the death of Theodosius I in 395.
it has been published. Similarly, if objects are only known out of conrext, rhen , clespite the intense programme of church building in
lhe inforrnation that can be derived from them is severely limited.8 ttit:ople, l\onre and elsewhere, and the role of Constantine at the
Neither are all parts of the late antique world equally studied by archae- Éouncil of Nicaea during the second quarter of the foîrth century, the
ologists, nor with reference to the same questions. There is far more archaeo- Ehrintiun (lhr.rrch was not yet integrated into the life of the state in the way
logical research of all sorrs on rhe period c.4oo-c.650 in Britain than, for thrt it hter bccaure. For example, it was not until 383 that the Altar of Victory
exanrple, in Spain. In the Eastern Mediterranean, while the fascination of ïËl renlovecl from the Senate in Rome.e
'lloman archaeology' has long been in evidence, 'Byzantine archaeology' is lly the beginning of the fifth century, then, the Roman Empire had been
ldll in its infancy, and for most of the Empire we know far less than would be for the fir:al tirne" The Empire had adopted not simply a new religion,
_Étvtded
lruê of the same area in the Roman period. This creates a very uneven distri- but s new set of principle\;--eodes and standards of practice that would change
ruüion of data across the area with which this book is concerned and constrains lË direction for the rest of its history. The most important characteristics of the
rhat Icta nis b ea scaoidm amboount imt iesvceonn wcehpetnio nm aatmeroianl gis aprlcehnateifourlo.gists' and historians 'ByzaTuhtien eW' Eesntreprinre l \hoamda bne eEnn rspeitr ein a plsloa cree.mained in existence at the beginning
vorking on other periods that the data for the fifth to seventh cenruries are Of the fiftlr ccntury, and it, too, became oflicially Christian. For people living
:xceptionally spârse in general. This is not ar all rrue, notwithstanding these ; rt the turn of the fifth celrtury it would l"rot necessârily have been apparent that
imitations. For example, mâny thousands of excavated and publish.d grarr.s, r different political alrcl cultural unit wrrs enrerging in the East. Even so, change
:ontaining 'grave-goods' (objects buried with the body) are known from across '. oceurrc'cl very rapiclly, given tlrat Wcstctrn Europe hacl been part of the Roman
iurope, Moreover, in the very areas where the evidence might be the most Enrpire fbr centuries befirre the tifth century, ln 40(r tlrc' l\hinc froze, allowing
lifiïc:ult to recognise in less than state-oÊthe-art excavations and surveys, such perhaps thousautls of (lerrrrurric rrrigralrts to cnter tlre Errrpire, urcl eventually
§ westcrn llritain, the standard of archaeology has becn particularly high, &ttk tlrroughout the (lontirrent, lu 410 thc city of l(outc wrs sac:kecl, after
Leatlers fànrililr with tlrc (sonrctimes seenrirrgly illtrâc:tâblc) archaeoiogy of reveral attrrnlpt§, try the (ltlths, lecl lry Ahtic atrd, irt tlre sattte ycar, thc
resterit llritairr will bc aw;trc tlrat intcrprctrrfirxrs tllitt rrright seenr rcrnr.lous pnrvirrces of Ilriteirr were orrle'rccl to carry out thrlir owtt rilrfbncrr, lly thc 44()s,
,cWW4u,7u.ec(iusirlit trte wrywrru lrrl-rrrr er6.icnc .(ra* )l;.t(l#*ilool.ttr,t;etr.Èt krttpt,trt,Éctt,tlrtrspw*t .l-ee (itM'erh,l,ngoc, ' reyticlnrtuolef ;iv,rl rr rFy.trt ,e, mO sttuoohtrtrneinràs rlgot eiH r ltu rhottcielvtttt ets«rltr nripn!ti)dhtttclt't-t,erp rli;tc êtt Irlsh oip 'trl€Ët.nttfat dtttt lirrowtl;iltt1ihtrl sleetl 'ltN t LlFrtee ,ptpnttetrtpsarwes,l tcirtswoert erthrl t cilor ostt rfulrt llrkrirttdtrirl' ;,,1.âi, I'i*tü,tlnae.; ui ;fttlr;rf .Bu c tvl*iet*€r1 vÉr.,e,ue,,l, trr ,ipi. tr,lcyr,c;'(,rE r|,tir'lr1l11rl,l. rrê1,Étlillr .er trc,iyrrro gl,r r hrttlrtl nrtho'elreitectt teâ .trÉt rrul[e xl6ittrttit, tlrhâë irrrr§ t ai t*llxttslnttlrrgttrret»ye l§ nrwlBi{ t'tilErÉv l (eivil lrerbttrn h ttit' hltirlq* lrry€ÉtrH'et rhlp,Et §t,ll,ri' 5Fyttrt,e* ltl.* idaA.T:tplLpr* r ilPtiitr" ee-tF'gl .l*i-pl 1lnl§'1ratsTltclat:s'
bc.cl 4eposccl thc prcvious ycar) was rentoved firrtrr oflicc'by thc'(icrtttattic ü;i,i;.;i;i,i;,,;r;p;ïo;;rJt'âI,r,r,t, ,,*r.a t6e tirrtrrrre'. ()f' rrro:lr:r:.sllt-e'r:i1es-t rt't: l§'lot l(lllalll,l.c:':,' r:rr]rlc:l
gettcral, ()dovaccr. I"
ettlnt(eclrtrorleri fgprir.:nlehaceafb\trtr )tlnle,crÿe e lachtoE,hll i,pirl e ben' iI upnt lEy ttiearli zrseewsae 'xt.l en eacWrTtgcnhinhti aetlyeRiirsms a'o t.wwce âmTthrtaeenheasr einnsaRt otnBiiEocn yesdmr zn,nte haptaosianircnnrytterei nic.bEst ehee Dm tan hEutit paturmi nitirran,ycpe s gwliu rrp ewedittmah eahoredas tr ,it in fhogsisofeiftt nf ih ulaabcl n toceilecaunenedrrne rsg tteeifaeunix,tirf n iy istot.eh,st fene tEhnh tfieacirinfe sytEdt,h e ast rhhsincgtoe e hwcb nto'et,eLu guvawraneytene,-r ɧë;rfuOuê#CCanri"nhilVU fcfàu*e tiotur-og,È, rue,tt§ ,,liw yor,r«e f,rfre ,*i r t bSiirherl[ei.ylcees,ril i rrlrlrrt,ie( grrl.)rlrt,,el tr e tnt6'.tgl lrsleu,rr rs.rroeuc"rol fi{re cr'E fi lit§*r-trlglsit.ft§ci yec,tr,lpir:vl,rri irtrriec* 'tv triyjt,netri ,ltilelull ll'lcs\, \ r .rUA§ctts.tt ecr cetriislryrricltrvtttsrc tttslr(l trllr ir .tlyrteWktit s,rlii ir nl.rcr nl rgrlwstrdptl,tthc lt,,tllâl l]e6 i lyttotf tizlrtoirct'forrcrxttrgrhplrp lr-rce er(.tilf nrrrtitt sirrtcrlrtettrcilttnl cr-dltccotrr rc'.e crEtss]vc'c:t i:ilc-xlh' s:s l1atitlctnrel 'tta T rtr.scppvsctlqlc tleeytt:tlp rlrt tfllçittwiooltskt.tir actttt tllr''sto. l'hic' t t tr.cctttstlstkfctt trc.l ltselttoycttrtf
ffifJ'üirt,,li;;;;:üi,;,liy- ,,r.,,r^,,a lorrs-disànce journeys ::-.r,11ï,:1.:tiy.:i::
Tho geograPhical context f*ffUiiflh;-t ;wi;iüth ;cilia;ryrgc r, c,s*plr..tcii,a,lilyt. ,i , rrtihsreo cfircaeric o-rfe sthidce nccleecsli naen do ft hbeo tchu rsLuat,tlet:: ,l1\i..,t,t':t,r,tt.r.,t::
Ttolf et reeh aunrrgàees rsthtoaot dto ionk ap lagceeo gart athpeh iceanld p oerf sRpeocmtiavne, rsuilnec ein pthheys Wicaels tg aelosgor anpeheyd lfÿfrGieîinl hl it';hifluf't;i ;;p;;r;;o; v;iid;cea;i ,rl;.r..ig"ùlritrre.lt' r ,a*rrenaaetincaslnt rso'- fbf tlvlor n rcgeo-fcrnleitssrathâsnntrc'e e"n ut trlââdnv ed?l .l 'o,I:tds1g 1tirne]-ga:sc::'l t1cYn.c:r:tt,t's :tt l;rtiiiltslL: ':iss
içtOrqncstutrrileinse tdh aatn edm faecrgilietadt.e Idn tahbeo suht a3p5e0 o tfh eth Re onmeawn p watoterlrdn woaf sr eal astiinognles,h iupns i{aiendd rwllikn dosf uslacillinntg tahnayt fsroigunri fNicoavnet rdnibsetârn ctoe .t hIn.d eenedd ,o tfh Me aTrhceho vdeorsyi afnc wo oshtilpcs (t3o1o10k)
SBthtâyrto eau, bgwohiu tthth 4eo5 nd0ei v tiEhsmieo npp iorbelei-tfwiwciaedlee nf r anrhgeemtw Eeoanrstkate torionf n laa nonddf ',\t Xhr/ieev seftore rranmn Eed mrs eRpaior ecmso maanfmt ewur notihcrelad t,dio efniarstsh't "rlntecell urt,dh Ea uvt ersot)er eâw rshrcaeivnr-e wsl ohsriiptohbuyul duil d"orinn*iglry',t ettahck'hee . mrpioliaÀgciue.,m bpmeetewrmre eimtnteo ndmt htihdse - oAcfJporrn-irslr etrr ,urrutclr tdir ,rJ.r iut.{ly-f'
of Theodosius I, and then the emergence of a series of seemingly independent the peak tirne for se. t,a"l and, despite the di{ficulties arltl cxpell§c
ktwiiouargsis cil mosrypnsest deae-c drto hbsrsyo tuahg esh efooruiertms meorfo sRbtoo oumnf adthnaar'Wite sae rseata,n . dhT arhdisu kdssi,s ttcrhoaanvtne hel ac-td ee dns pothet icseia xclilosyt mebdmy dulaunnridcina g-- Ainnla's.encirll a a,trrry.er avpse .lco lbpoelwecn as mttoilel tpmhreeo frceeor raeismdt, p ttoohe rtt raManvete,d l istoeovr ertaorlnoaen addni''d' emspaejcoira llryiv, ebrust raulsn«rri lrtlrrgc
tlre Late Roman EmPire.
Suclrroutesbecamecriticalmeânsofoverseasandlorrg-distltrcrl
MeditTehrrea nmeoasnt Simepâ,o crtoannnt epchtyinsgic athl efe amtuarien ocfo athsitsa lr eogr ionnea wr-acso a(satnadl rceitmieasin os)f tthhee §i;il;'îrc'a''t ionii,i palrth.oitu.gîh * shaofe p.aos.s,taigoel ltehdro uitsg hv aar iroivuesr tsryibsutetmar isetsill' raenqdu irrievde rg oaonccll
EAalerxlya nl3àyrziaa,n tCinaer thEamgpei,r eT h- ecsosnaslotnainktii naonpd leA,t hEepnhse s-u sw, iStha rdltiasl,y P, esor$u.tmheornn, GAnautiol acnhd, âEîJiii,yip,r"*i,ir.r;*, ;* *lrr;., oof*teiqn. ,c"l ocsierylv orf'l -Mklé9r'i dSao 'c oaultlhcto ubgen a c':c:eis:s:e1d Ï.b:y: :t'h:1e 1(]u,:aTdia,1naÏ
tlre eastern and southern seaboard of Spain. Lining the Mediterranèan and its fi;'fbr .*r,r,/1., whil. nth*, central Spanish towns were also suitably provi-
saptlSrlruycuee'brzn nâ:s aa)sric tndguAfrrituocaliownt urcnyteassn ly sopgwsceroe alehilnrsrlt il,enscs ersp hia gwuot lnc onhrlhtila efaer ivrccalneiasaspt l a nrtlachacrtlti resuutgaau rsefSci)t n ektems gsarth h acttiophehdofseee uf M a clRhpdsoaitoo serubml msliaedttia t ac tflrsaanoaaacu rl,f pkt neft terltchoya hr tengitseof mh dARdleo,ee, o ltgtnattemhsgetra ea-,ae tt nitlo Mo i s(Sfna1fet-i Înc)dlto'odti"ilct ayfect dhrt irh enataer naAn 5efnd3dia sf6rltnpoih aw oa tardichctre ,eg, u nunewptas u,etpb rhroeyleye-r' f*FËttoiffo*d i in:Lri .hn-yfueelàorrv 1inLpe;a o n;itnniitrrhel.e s; tt hwei,o leeea;rn crfhcrtt,ueâte ,rrstit ietrls rltsott g;. soïpteh.f p, e ,igirtn,r'rrisa gou1vr tr'te6n,,l,lli".ts n, br iMnn.ty'lr . .tc rs(lNscrtili aetooc riarttll.wlt,l ett tdSist.tno linrrrrrririllv tiliteattsarl'gnortrl l t $yflttril-,rhop srireg uttt t rh wt'tttMelahgr sec el V{' rshcE'at .lirloballale nesnpyt5fegot ,rriis rrtnserpl g i bMott llrteopere vrdonitcnillttitclit elaitrichnrrllaareygrnl sewrlwtieaaxeithttlsryllr:''
BYZANTIUM, BRITATN & TH E WEST
Gaul was also operati:g T , separate poritical entiry from the Empire, foilor,..e.i
shortly afrerwards by Spain. v.i, arrirg the mid-{iârr..r,rry rhere was regutm
-cwoemsmteurnn ication between the Eastern government and what remained of rs
'w'est counterpart. Moreover, there remained a ,Roman, Emperor i, rhe
who was acknowledged by constantinople, a situation that persisted unol
476 when Romurus (the infant son of th. È-p..o.1.rtirr'N.pos,
been deposed the previous year) was removed fro- à18.. by the G*e-rhmoa mha,cJ
general. Odovacer.,n
'while
the western Roman Empire was stin in existence, ho*-eru
en*ebled, it is legitimate to describe it as_ part of a larger entiry thq_-kre
Roman Empire'. This was an entiry that included, of course, its Eastern coun_
tteor pdaervte' ltohpe nEeawst ecrnh aRrao*meraisnt icEsm, poinree.s Drhuarrin. gir it,hf,e ,ffirf.th U ce";n;t;u ry:,ü t;h*eü Erai:sit :besrn
might call'Byzantrne'. The Byzantine Empire originated in the fifth cenrun:
thereltore, bur exactry when in that century remains uncertain.
The geographical context
tToh eb ech uanngdeesr sthtoaot dt ook ,p lace at the end of Roman rule in the west also nee.l
]: l.?*raphical perspecrive, since physicrl g";;;;;
constrained and facilitated the shrpe oi th. .r.* pattern àf .erationships
an,J
structures that emerged. In about 350 the Roman world was a singre, unirie,J
state,- with one Empire-wide network of land, river and sea communicarrons-
By about 450 the poritical fragmentation of the former Roman world. ûrrr
othf rTouhegohd tohseiu dsi vii,s iaonnd btheetwne tehne tehme eErgaesntecren oanf da wseerisetse ronf Esemepmirinegsr ya fitnedr ethpee nddeeanthr
kingdoms across the former RomaJ'w.st,
had disconnected thr, .o--unica_
tions system throughout most of that area. Thus, travel - especia[y by ran,J _
was impeded by a series of boundaries and risks that had ,r'ot .rirt.d during
the Lace Roman Empire.
The most important physicar feature of this region was (and remains) the
Mediterranean Sea, connecting the main coastal or neaï-coastal cities of the
Early Byzantine Empire.- constantinople, Ephesus, sardis, pergamon, Antioch.
Alexandria, carthage, Thessaroniki ,rrà atn"rrs - with ttaly, soîtnern Gaul anil
the eastern and southern seaboard of spain. Lining the Mediterranean and its
subsidiary seas, such as the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean and the Adriatic, *ere
numerous porrs where large ships courd saGry sheràa orr-road and load up. or
areas from which navar attacks could be launched, as at Sicily in 536 when rhe
Byzantrne general Belisarius made his attack on Rome (1).,1
Always important during the Roman period, the Mediterranearl arguabrr-
became more significant afrer the political fragmentation of trr. nnr, ;;ï;;
sea routes came to represent the fastest form of long-distance ,;";;;;;'.Ë
t2
BYZANTIUM, BRITAIN & THE WEST
Gaul was also operating as a separate political entify from the Empire, followed
shortly after-wards by Spain. vei, during the mid-fiâh century there was regular
communication berween the Eastern government and what remained of its
rM_estern counterpart. Moreover, there remained a .Roman, Emperor in the
West who was acknowledged by Constantinople, a situation that persisted until
476 when Romulus (the infant son of the Èrrperor Jurius Nepos, who had
been deposed the previous year) was removed fro- àtÏi.e by the Germanic
general. Odovacer.,,,
while the wcstern Roman Empire was still in existence, however
enGebled, it is legitimare to describe i, ,, p"., of a larger entiry thez.Late
Roman Empire'. This was an entiry that included, of couie, t;;il;#.;:
terpart, the Eastern Roman Empire. During the fifth ..r,r.y, the East began
to develop new characteristics, ones that, with the benefit of hirdrighr, *.
might call 'Byzanrine'. The Byzantine Empire originated in the fifth Jerrir.y,
therefore, but exactly when in that century remains uncertain.
The geographical context
The changes that took place at the end of Roman rule in the west also need
ro be undersrood in a geographical perspecrive. since physicrl g.og.rphf
constrained and facilitated the shape of the new patern àr r.utioÀn+, ,"â
structures that emerged. In about 350 the Roman world was a single, unified
state, with one Empire-wide network of land, river and sea communications.
By about_ 450 the political fragmentation of the former Roman world, firsr
through the division befween the Eastern and'western Empires after the death
of Theodosius I, and then the emergence of a series of ,.eàirgly independent
kingdoms across the former Ro,'rrr'w.st, had disconnected tiri, .o--uniia-
tions system throughout most of that area. Thus, travel - especialy by land -
was impeded by a series of boundaries and risks that had ,it .*irt"d during
the Late Roman Empire.
-.The most imporranr physical Garure of this region was (and remains) the
Mediterranean Sea, connecting the main coastal o, ,.r.-.orstal cities of the
EaÿByzantine Empire - constantinople, Ephesus, sardis, pergamon, Antioch,
Alexandria, carrhage, Thessaloniki ,rà atn.rrs - with ttaiy, sJutnern Gaul and
the eastern and southern seaboard of Spain. Lining the Mediterranean and its
subsidiary seas, such as the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean and the Adriatic, were
numerous ports where large ships could safely shelter, ofÊroad and road up, or
areas from which naval artacks courd be raunched, as at sicily in 536 when the
Byzantine general Belisarius made his atrack on Rome (1).1,
Always important during the Roman period, the Mediterranean arguably
became more significant after the political fragmentation of the fifth century.
sea routes came to represent the fastest form of long-distance transport, espe-
t2
INTROT)UCTION
t-:-::re.
-' followed - - .-.r' u-hen some lnilitary roads were abandoned and others became too
:-:.:: §':fS fegUlaf -i-:--lerous to traverse regularly. The situation was compounded by interna-
: .': :-::-:-t:i..etirltoerd ino ft hites ::-- ::r:*:1g hpo tlihtieca Bl adlekvaenlso pcmoeunidts nino tt hbee sgixutahr aanntede sde vaetn athn yce pnotuinryt. cSlaufrein pga ssLaagiee {llii
:. ..: ::rsisted r.rntil r-:-:rqr-riq', \vhile security in the rnountain ranges north of the Italian p.rirr.rl" tlllll
:l'\ .'::.:rts- . Gge-rhnola hnaicd ,':-:,:.::: rlrdoer-did uepdo inm wpohrot acnotn tthroorlloeudg hthfaer easre fao ar t rannoyn kgsiv seunc hti mase .c oTlhuem bAalpniunse ip1a stshees ,'Tt*lltlt[
-.:,:-.-:::1:t:-1-'i.. thhoew'Leavteer :': ::-:-r\r-h.r .c wenetruer yn, oatn dn ebcoeossstaerdily t haes fsoerctuunree si no ft hmeo nfaifsthte raiensd a st iSrtth G caellnetunr iaensd. ,*u
-:, E-t.tern coun- '.::'i:i'1':sr.srteiolv1 r by the rnid-seventh century, and the end of the per-iod u-trder:
here, the rise of the Arabs as a political force had begun tJclose
. :::: East began .: ::: Holy Land and Egypt to Western and Byzantine travellers alike.,,
: :-. ::::l:rti.hls icgehntt,u rWye, E'en rvithin the former Roman west, long-distance travel was often
-.::.,-,.1r. Srories abound of travellers in Gaul who experienced attempts to delay
--::r,
Lrn erther leg of their journeys to and from the East, sonretinres on
.-'::.-ion ofbeing associated with a rival king, at other times simply for theft of
'-:,: 'wholly
r.lonqings. overland long-distance journeys remained risky and
-, -: -l:r u'irh danger, especially in the face of the decline of both Lare Roman
: :rt - : :rrs oihospitality relating to aristocratic residences and the cursus publicus, a s1r
.:..1 . .- oaelosuor anpeheyd :: j:: :-r ir.hp:1rt vp rtohvaitd tehde rMegeudliater rrsatanteioanns, fboyr rceofnretrsahsmt, ecnotu aldn db elo dtrgaivnegrss.e dy eatt , wthhiism is, l,ilr lI
-.... :,::,:-:.:n1.e1.- rUipns ifaiendd -: - --:h it u'as the principal û1eans oflong-distance travel. Its treacherous tides
- :':-::runications. ": .:':.:'-.rklr dosf nslaeialinngt tahnayt fsroigmni fNicoavnet ndribstearn ctoe .t hIned eenedd ,o tfhMea Trchheo vdeorsyi afne wc oshdipes (t:osook)
':.'- .:- ,-;orid, first - ---.::d rhat sea travel should only take place between mid-April and mid-
.rt:r rhe death :::rlrer. Even r,vhen shipbuilding technologies pernütted the construction of
-.', ::rJependent -- .a.r l,d nrore sea-worthy vessels, the midsummer months ofJune andJuly
: -.: ' -' tlnnrunica- ' .-:::J rhe peak tinre for sea travel and, despite the difliculties and e*perse
:-. .,.',. br- land - ...-J.
rnany people still preferred to travel overland.,3
, :,--:iirl during rri icâ travel became more inrportlnt, so too did major rivers running
*
. ::-j:nd areas down to the coast, the Mediterranean especially, but also thà
:,-i ::rrrains) the r:. ..::--. Such ro,tes became critical means of overseas and long-distance Il
. :,- ,'i:res of the ::'--:ric:rtion, although safe passage through a river system still required good '(li
--. -i, :-1.,: r:t:t. GÀanutilo acnhd, '-: -- :. : ''.: :i):i ns1itsh w aelrle p oarftteiens cwlohsoe lyc olinntkroeldle. dS oit,s avltahroiouugsh trloibcuattaerdie isn, acenndt rraivl esrp aainnd, ,{rri{i{(
:' .: l:,r:l -.111 and itS . ,.r'i'ùrrànt late antique ciry of Mérida could be accessed by the Guaàiana ,*rl
.1,::r.ttic, wete " :r. rùr' erample, while other central spanish towns rvere also suitably provi-
.---: -oad up, or - -i :"' rir-ers running to the interior. Similarly, it was still possrbie in the sixth
:. J-:r, u-hen the ::'.':Irh
-' centuries to travel by sea and river from the Eastern Mediterranean
- :: rn rhe heart of southern Gaul, sailing up the llhône, potentially with
-r-l-:-l1l areuably ' .
.: - -'-:'ocs. after stopping at Marseille or Fos-sur-Mer, before travelling west
-::rh century. . L..ire or east to the Rhine. Norwithstanding the changing political rela-
,::il!port, espe- --. i.cnr-een those groups that controlled the po valley in northern ltaly,
ld€nvE$Etyr n!€E; il,vey IEn1 EEE GsElE Ën§ rnïI€r EryErl (EIrsBE üulEEslG rsF
ùlpr) wete far lers lllrely to eonle into eotltaet wirh people fnrrn
psrts ot'what lracl lreert the unified lturttitrt [utrpire, 'l'lris suggests th$t
t
thotrld fircus orr coartnl nrttl riveriue eouss itr rlrtler to gauge tlte exteiut
nêture of'lirrks betwccrr the Easterrr Mediterrarrearr aud tlre firrruer l\onran
N and tlut rehtive linenr clistances nre llot t)ecessarily good indicators of
eloreuess of relati«urs ltetwc'en East attd We'st.
The role of islirrrcls is olrviously intportattt herc, both because they are so
â€ce$§ible by sen uncl bccluse they have frequently served as staging posts
Cologne sea-going ships rrriglrt shelter or take on water and provisions.
tly the archaecllogy of islands, whether off-shore islands, such as
or Port-(lr«ls (southern France) and Bréhat (Brittany), or larger island
pr, suclr as the Scillies or Channel Islands, may deserve special attention in
It
ix,xr--'l irrg East-West contacts during Late Antiquicy. also highlights the
,êoll ( h e of the llritish Isles in early post-Roman networks of contact. This
.Zuruorir o,tidla\" be taken to suggest that the decline of overland transport and the
ilnilrdga
ion of l{onran imperial boundaries could have benefited the west and
üaBar\cclona \ of lJritain and the south and east of Ireland by eliminating differences in
)
.=*./' gyzantine Eqplu ( between these and many Continental destinations.
\ Further inland, however, beneath the mountains and throughout the
a4 area, wâs a densely settled agricultural landscape that had been thickly
'mcusg/ Anlioch T with farrns since at least the Iron Age. \Mhilst the Roman littoral of
("r"mionrf I-. ., Mnorrrnru,NmN\ sel r^-îa' i'e.Çrvaumrsascus Mediterranean may have been a nefwork of towns, even in the fourth
' much of the north and west of Britain, Spain and Gaul was predom-
I
II y rural, with few large urban settlements. There were some exceptions,
Ïre Byaurliuc Empire rJcpsalcm
Arof ol thc Wesl rilonquerdd b] .trsliniân in llritain. The Life of St Germanus of Auxerre implies that Wrulamium
0l: 250 5oo krrs St Alban$ was still an important place when the saint visited the
0 150 100 nilcs \ lloman town in 429. Moreover, in those areas that had been heavily
I
in the fourth century, notably soutlrern Gaul and the Rhine valley,
I Map oJ Europe showing selected places mentioneil in the text life survived in some form throughout the fifth, sixth and perhaps even
centuries, as at Marseille, Lyon, Trier and Cologne. Italy seems to have
better than most of the former Roman West and several towns survived,
vital for passâge across the Alps to the Rhine, the Rhineland itself could be in reduced form. Across Gaul, Spain and Italy (albeit to varying degree$
rÊached quite easily by travellers coming from the Byzantine Empire. The is evidence for the survival of Roman-style villas to the end of the fifth
Rorthern city of cologne and the rowns in its viciniry were a key pàrt of the ry and sclmetimes beyond.''
Frankish kingdom in the seventh century, thus increasing the relevance of the . In such cnvironments, classical education and literacy in Latin often also
t\hine for regional and long-distance transportarion. In this way, rhe arrival of pcuisted, as did other âspects of Late l\oman culture, such as the burial of the
lhe Lombards in northern Italy in 568 had implications thar far outreached ,dead in stone sarcophagi arrd the erection of sub-Roman memorial stones
politics in that region, even if it \Mas the home of the Byzantine administration ,(with epitaphs irr Lltin). Sonre belt buckles and ceran:ics continued to be
It Ravenna. Relations between the Lombards and their allies also determined producetl in l\onran ftrrttts, as irr the llhir:e valley, where Mayen \Mâre was
he extent ancl range of long-distance contacts between the Rhineland area and producecl fnrnr the l{orrnn periorl urrtilfong into the post-l{«:rnan period.
:he Easte:rn Meditcrranean and, potentially, with Ilritairr as well.,o The-glass irrdustry also renrained in oper{tiorr in the lthine valley in the first
part of the fifth century ancl a sub-ltonrarl.tirrnr of coinage was nraintrined in