Byzantium at War AD 600-1453 (Essential Histories)

94 Pages·2003·31.52 MB·English

by  John Haldon

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Byzantium at War
AD 600-1453
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Essential Histories
Byzantium at War
AD 600 1453
eab
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
John Haldon
NEW YORK AND LONDON
This hardback edition is published by Routtedge, an imprint
of the Taylor & Francis Group, by arrangement with
Osprey Publishing Ltd.. Oxford, England.
For information. please address the publisher:
Routledge (USA)
29 West 35th Street New YOrk.• NY 10001
voiisivroutledge-ny.carri
Roudedge (UK)
I I New Fetter Lane. London EC4P 4EE
www.routledge.co.uk
First published 2002 under the title Essential Histories 33:
Byzantium at Wer AD 600-1453 by Osprey Publishing Ltd..
Elms Court Chapel Way, Botley, Oxford OX2 9LP
ED 2003 Osprey Publishing Ltd
All rights reserved_ No pan of This book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic means.
now known or hereafter invented. including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval 'system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
ISBN 0-415-96861-5
Panted and bound in China on acid-free paper
03 04 .05 06 07 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Haldon, John F.
Byzantium at War, AD 600-1453 / John 1.-Ialdorl.
p. cm. - (Essential Histories]
Originally putAishect.Oxford: Osprey Publishing Ltd.. 2002.
includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN .0-115i9686 I -5
I Byzantine Empire-History. Military-527- I 08 I. 2. Byzantine
Emptre••1-listGry. Military- 1081-1453. I. Title. II. Series_
DF543.H35 2003
949.5102-cic2 I
2003009686
Contents
Introduction 7
Chronology 19
Background to war
The political world of Byzantium 23
Warring sides
Neighbours and enemies 29
Outbreak
Why and how did Byzantium fight wars? 36
The fighting
Organising for war 47
Portrait of a soldier
Recruitment, discipline, and life on campaign 61
The world around war
War and peace 72
Portrait of a civilian
Metrios — a farmer 80
How the wars ended
Death of an empire 86
Conclusion and consequences
War, peace, and survival 90
Further reading 92
Byzantine rulers AD 527-1453 93
Index 94
Introduction
The Byzantine empire was not called by that 11th centuries and, in the later 11th and
name in its own time, and indeed the term 12th centuries, the Hungarians, later the
`Byzantine' was used only to describe Serbs and finally, after their conquests in
inhabitants of Constantinople, ancient Greece and the southern Balkans, the
Byzantion on the Bosphorus. The subjects of Ottoman Turks. Relations with the western
the emperor at Constantinople referred to powers which arose from what remained of
themselves as Rhomaioi, Romans, because as the western Roman empire during the Sth
far as they were concerned Constantinople, century were complicated and tense, not least
the city of Constantine 1, the first Christian because of the political competition between
ruler of the Roman empire, had become the the papacy and the Constantinopolitan
capital of the Roman empire once Rome had patriarchate, the two major sees - Alexandria,
lost its own pre-eminent position, and it was Antioch and Jerusalem were far less powerful
the Christian Roman empire that carried on after the 7th century Islamic conquests - in
the traditions of Roman civilisation. in turn, the Christian world. Byzantium survived so
the latter was identified with civilised society long partly because internally it was
as such, and Orthodox Christianity was both well-organised, with an efficient fiscal and
the guiding religious and spiritual force which military system; and partly because these
defended and protected that world, but was advantages, rooted in its late Roman past,
also the guarantor of God's continuing lasted well into the 11th century. But as its
support. Orthodoxy means, literally, correct western and northern neighbours grew in
belief, and this was what the Byzantines resources and political stability they were able
believed was essential to their own survival.
Thus, from the modern historian's
perspective, 'Byzantine' might be paraphrased
by the more long-winded 'medieval eastern
Roman' empire, for that is, in historical terms,
what 'Byzantium' really meant.
In its long history, from the later
5th century, when the last vestiges of the
western half of the Roman empire were
absorbed into barbarian successor kingdoms,
until the fall in battle of the last eastern
Roman emperor, Constantine XI (1448-53),
the empire was almost constantly at war. Its
strategic situation in the southern Balkans
and Asia Minor made this inevitable. It was
constantly challenged by its more or its less
powerful neighbours - at first, the Persian
empire in the east, later the various Islamic
powers that arose in that region - and by its
northern neighbours, the Slays, the Avars (a Gold nomismo of Constantine VI (780-797). Reverse:
Leo III (717-741), Constantine V (74 I -775) and Leo IV
Turkic people) in the 6th and 7th centuries,
(775-780), seated, (Courtesy of Barber Institute of Fine
the Bulgars from the end of the 7th to early Arts. University of Birmingham)
8 Essential Histories • Byzantium at War
to challenge the empire for pre-eminence, to ward off attack, all contributed to the
reducing it by the early 13th century to a longevity of the state. And these measures
second- or even third-rate rump of its former were essential to its survival, for although
self, subordinated to the politics of the west Constantinople was itself well defended and
and the commercial interests of Venice, Pisa strategically well placed to resist attack, the
and Genoa, among others, the greatest of the empire was surrounded on all sides by
Italian merchant republics. In this hook, we enemies, real or potential, and was generally
will look at some of the ways in which the at war on two, if not three, fronts at once
medieval east Roman empire secured its long throughout much of its long history. The
existence. lOth-century Italian diplomat Liutprand of
Cremona expressed this situation well when
he described the empire as being surrounded
The Byzantine lands
by the fiercest of barbarians - Hungarians,
Pechenegs, Khazars, Rus' and so forth.
The Byzantine, or medieval eastern Roman, Asia Minor was the focus of much of the
empire was restricted for most of its empire's military activity from the 7th until
existence to the southern Balkans and Asia the 13th century. There are three separate
Minor - very roughly modern Greece and climatic and geographical zones, consisting of
modern Turkey. In the middle of the the coastal plains, the central plateau regions,
6th century, after the success of the emperor and the mountains which separate them.
Justinian's reconquests in the west, the While hot, dry summers and extreme cold in
empire had been much more extensive, winter characterise the central plateau, and
including all of the north African coastal where, except for some sheltered river valleys,
regions from the Atlantic to Egypt, along the economy was mainly pastoral - sheep,
with south-eastern Spain, Italy and the cattle and horses - the coastlands, where
Balkans up to the Danube. But by the later most productive agricultural activity and the
6th century the Italian lands were already highest density of settlement was located,
contested by the Lombards, while the
Visigoths of Spain soon expelled the imperial
administration from their lands. The near
eastern provinces in Syria, Tray and the
Transjordan region along with Egypt were all
lost to Islam by the early 640s, and north
Africa followed suit by the 690s. In a half
century of warfare, therefore, the empire lost
some of its wealthiest regions and much of
the revenue to support the government, the
ruling elite and vital needs such as the army.
Much of the territory that remained to
the empire was mountainous or arid, so that
the exploitable zones were really quite
limited in extent. Nevertheless, an efficient
(for medieval times) fiscal administration
and tax regime extracted the maximum in
manpower and agricultural resources, while a
heavy reliance on well-planned diplomacy,
an extensive network of ambassadors,
emissaries and spies, a willingness to play off
neighbours and enemies against one another,
and to spend substantial sums on 'subsidies'
Introduction 9
offered a friendlier, 'Mediterranean' type regions from central plateaux. The complex
climate, and were also the most important Roman and Hellenistic road system was
source of revenues for the government. The partly retained during the Byzantine period,
pattern of settlement was similarly strongly but the empire after the 6th century
differentiated - most towns and cities were developed a range of military routes together
concentrated in the coastal regions, while the with a series of fortified posts and military
mountains and plateaux were much more bases - for these same routes also served as
sparsely settled. Similar considerations means of access and egress for Arab forces.
applied to the Balkans, too, and in both cases Strategic needs changed, of course, and so
this geography affected road systems and did the road system, with routes falling in
communications. The empire needed to take and out of use.
these factors into account in strategic The Balkans present a rugged and
planning and campaign organisation, of fragmented landscape falling broadly into
course, for logistical considerations - the two zones: the coastal and riverine plains (of
sources of manpower, food and shelter, Thrace, of Thessaly and of the south
livestock and weapons, how to move these Danubian area), which are productive and
around, and how they were consumed - fairly densely occupied; and the mountain
played a key role in the empire's ability to ranges that dominate the whole region and
survive in the difficult strategic situation in represent about two-thirds of its area - the
which it found itself. Dinaric Alps in the west, stretching from
Armies, whether large or small, and north-east to south-west; the southerly
whether Byzantine or hostile forces, faced Pindus range with which they merge, and
many problems when campaigning in or which together dominate western and
across Asia Minor, in particular the long central Greece; and the Balkan chain itself,
stretches of road through relatively waterless
and exposed country, and the rough
Aqueduct of Valens in Constantinople (4th century).
mountainous terrain separating coastal (Author's collection)
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Introduction II
The conquests of the emperor Justinian re-established and the middle of the 2nd century All. The
the eastern Roman empire as the dominant power in network also facilitated commerce, civilian
the Mediterranean.
traffic and the movement of information. But
in the later 4th and 5th centuries the roads
stretching from the Morava river as far as the went into decline — a reflection of economic
Black Sea coast, with the Rhodope range and social changes across the empire and the
forming an arc to the south, through consequences of these for local governors and
Macedonia towards the plain of Thrace. The town councils. One result was a decline in the
fragmented terrain has given rise to a series use of wheeled vehicles, which could not use
of distinct geopolitical units separated by roads that were not properly maintained, and
ridges of highlands, fanning out along river a corresponding increase in dependence on
valleys towards the coastal areas. beasts of burden.
A number of major routes served from After the 6th century a limited number
ancient times to give access to the interior of of key routes was kept up by means of
the Balkan region or to pass through it from compulsory burdens imposed on local
north to south or west to east. The Balkans communities. The fast post, consisting of
are characterised by relatively narrow and pack-animals, relay horses and light carts,
often quite high, easily controlled passes, and the slow post, which provided ox-carts
and this terrain was ideally suited to guerrilla and heavy vehicles, were amalgamated into
strategy — tough campaigning conditions, a single system in the 6th or 7th century,
and difficult access to some regions during and continued to operate until the last years
the winter. The structure of communications of the empire. The imperial road systems in
and the effectiveness of Byzantine political both the Balkans and Anatolia were less
authority demonstrate this, for there were no extensive than hitherto, but remained
obvious focal points in the ancient and nevertheless effective. But the costs of
medieval period in the south Balkan region maintenance and the problem of
apart from Thessaloniki and Constantinople, supervising upkeep meant that many routes
both on the edge of the peninsula and its were hardly more than tracks or paths
fragmented landscape. usable only by pack-animals, with paved or
Geography affected land use in the Balkans hard surfaces only near towns and fortresses.
as it did in Asia Minor. The uplands and Travel and transport by water was usually
mountains, dominated by forest and faster and much cheaper. This was especially
woodland, and the lower foothills by so in the case of the long-distance
woodland, scrub and rough pasturage, were movement of bulk goods, such as grain, for
suited to pastoral activity only. Agriculture example. The expense of feeding
was limited to the plains, river valleys and draught-oxen, drovers and carters, paying
coastlands of Thessaly, Macedonia and the tolls, together with the slow rate of
Danube. The sea played an important role, movement of ox-carts, added very
since it surrounds the Balkan peninsula apart considerably to the price of the goods being
from along the northern boundary, and acted, transported, generally well beyond the price
as it still does today, as an efficient means of of ordinary subjects of the emperors. It was
communication along the heavily indented really only the government and the army,
coastline and with more distant regions. The and to a certain extent the Church and a
disadvantage of relatively easy seaborne few wealthy individuals, who could pay for
access, however, was that it opened up the this. In contrast, shipping was much more
southern Balkan peninsula to invasion. cost effective, since large quantities of goods
One of the factors that made the Roman could be transported in a single vessel,
army so successful and efficient was the handled by a small crew, relatively
military road system, established for the most inexpensively, once the capital investment
part between the end of.the 2nd century BC in vessel and cargo had been made.
12 Essential Histories • Byzantium at War
Byzantine fortress town of Koloneia (mod. and so forth. And geographical factors were,
Sebinkarahisa0 in eastern Anatolia. (Author's collection) of course, fundamental to warfare and the
strategic organisation of the empire.
This was the physical world of the later
Roman and medieval eastern Roman, or
A brief survey of
Byzantine, empire, and this was the context
within which the politics, diplomacy, warfare Byzantine history
and social evolution of Byzantine culture are
to be understood. Geography and physical By the later 5th century the western part of
context were not the only factors: cultural the Roman empire had been transformed
assumptions — the 'thought world' of into a patchwork of barbarian successor
Byzantium, also partly determined the states. Emperors at Constantinople
complex network of causes and effects, the continued to view all the lost territories as
results of which we call 'history'. But means part of their realm, however, and in some
of communication, speed of movement of cases to treat the kings of the successor
people and information were key aspects on kingdoms as their legitimate representatives,
which the effectiveness of armies or the governing Roman affairs in the provinces in
availability of resources to support a question until Constantinople could
campaign might depend. Geography affected re-establish a full administrative and military
how the government worked, the amount of presence. This is most obviously the case
agricultural wealth that it could make with the Ostrogothic leader Theoderic who,
available for specific purposes, the although he ruled nominally in the name of
distribution and well-being of the the emperor, established a powerful state in
population, rates of production and Italy. The leader of the Salian Franks in
consumption, the availability of livestock, northern Gaul, Clovis, had quite deliberately