bush allowance

170 Pages·2016·0.73 MB·English

BUSH ALLOWANCE: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL STUDY ON SEXUAL
EXPLOITATION OF SCHOOLGIRLS BY MALE TEACHERS IN RURAL SCHOOLS
IN NORTHERN GHANA

___________________________________

By
SAHADATU A ALOLO

___________________________________

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to the faculty of the Graduate School of Creighton University in Partial
Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in
Interdisciplinary Leadership
_________________________________

Omaha, NE
(March 28, 2016)
Copyright (2016), Sahadatu A Alolo

This document is copyrighted material. Under copyright law, no part of this document
may be reproduced without the expressed permission of the author.
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Abstract
In a patriarchal society like Ghana, the gendered hierarchy and socially accepted views of
masculinity and femininity have permeated the school environment, thereby making
Ghanaian schools the prime site not only for the construction of gender identity but also
for reinforcing existing gender relations that are built on socially sanctioned inequalities.
The effect of gender hierarchy in the school environment is particularly severe in rural
Ghana where sexual exploitation of girls in schools is threatening to undermine recent
gains in the girl-child education. A distinct evolution of such gendered pattern of abuse
has been brought to the fore by the Ghanaian media in a phenomenon called bush
allowance. This phenomenon primarily refers to the situation where some male teachers
in Ghana accept postings to villages because of opportunities to have sexual relations
with schoolgirls, as incentives for enduring the hardships of rural life. The practice of
bush allowance begs two legitimate questions: what are its causes and how could it be
addressed effectively? This phenomenological study explored these questions using
qualitative research methods and found that gendered hierarchical socio-economic
structures (poverty, expectations of femaleness, impunity, irresponsible parenting, etc.)
underline bush allowance. The study also found that although the exploitation of rural
schoolgirls occurs in contexts where it is often viewed as normal, this abuse has profound
implications for affected girls, including school dropout, pregnancy, and psychological
trauma, among others. The study, therefore, proposed to enhance and expand current girl-
empowerment strategies in Ghana to enable girls confront sexual exploitation.
Key words: Bush allowance, education stakeholders, empowerment, girl-child, power
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Dedication
I dedicate this educational achievement to my parents, Alhaji Alolo and Hajia
Mariam Alolo for their unwavering support, love, and prayers. All credits go to my
lovely father Alhaji Alolo for his unrelenting encouragement in every way imaginable to
pursue a doctoral degree. I also dedicate this to my favourite sister and best friend Dr.
Namawu Alolo who has supported me in immense ways. Lastly, I dedicate this to my
husband Kobana and our children Kataali, Timalma and Wunyiko for their support, love
and patience throughout this process.
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Acknowledgements
All praise is due to the Almighty God for the blessings and wisdom to complete
this doctoral degree. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Isabelle Cherney,
my dissertation committee Chair for her support, guidance and supervision throughout
this process. Dr. Cherney truly embodies the Jesuit values with the passion and
commitment to help others. Her comments and feedback on my research were essential to
the completion of my dissertation. I am indeed grateful for the friendship that has
cultivated between us. Many thanks go to Dr. Jennifer Moss Breen, and the EdD faculty
and staff for their support. I also thank Dr. Baba Jallow for agreeing to serve on my
dissertation committee and for reviewing my research and providing feedback. Special
thanks go to Dr. Karen Cook for her friendship and mentorship. Karen was instrumental
in helping me complete my dissertation. She proof read my manuscripts, edited, and
offered comments which enriched the content of my research. I am forever indebted to
Karen Cook for her kindness, generosity and love.
God Bless my siblings especially Dr. Mutaka Alolo and the entire Alolo family
for supporting me in varying ways with encouragement and prayers. Many of my friends
and colleagues at work cheered me on along the way, and I am forever grateful. I would
also like to thank my nephew, Alhassan Musah and friend Hardi Tijani for helping me
recruit research participants in Tamale. This study could not have been successful
without the research participants who freely provided me with invaluable data. Lastly, I
am grateful to Danielle Dugas, a friend and colleague at work for donating money to
MHI in my honor for passing my dissertation proposal. This kind gesture by Danielle
inspired and motivated me during challenging times.
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Table of Contents
Page

Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iii
Table of Contents ............................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... xi
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1
Background and Statement of the Problem ........................................................................ 1
Purpose of the Study ........................................................................................................... 6
Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 6
Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 7
Method Overview ............................................................................................................... 9
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 9
Study Limitations .............................................................................................................. 10
Delimitations ................................................................................................................. 11
Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 12
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................... 13
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 13
Power Dynamics ............................................................................................................... 13
Reward Power................................................................................................................ 15
Coercive Power.............................................................................................................. 16
Expert Power ................................................................................................................. 17
Legitimate Power ........................................................................................................... 18
Referent Power .............................................................................................................. 18
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Informational power ...................................................................................................... 19
Concept of Empowerment ................................................................................................ 21
Definitions ..................................................................................................................... 21
The Theory of Empowerment ........................................................................................... 24
Gender and Development (GAD) Approach to Empowerment ........................................ 25
The GAD Framework .................................................................................................... 25
Women Empowerment in International Development ..................................................... 27
Women Economic Empowerment ................................................................................. 29
Political Empowerment ................................................................................................. 32
Social Empowerment ..................................................................................................... 37
Research Setting................................................................................................................ 40
Northern Region of Ghana ............................................................................................ 40
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 44
Restatement of the Purpose of the Study .......................................................................... 44
Research Question ............................................................................................................ 44
Research Design................................................................................................................ 44
Sampling Procedures ........................................................................................................ 46
Sample Size ....................................................................................................................... 46
Data Collection ................................................................................................................. 47
Data Analysis Plan ............................................................................................................ 49
Validity and Reliability ..................................................................................................... 51
Personal Biases .............................................................................................................. 52
Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................................... 53
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Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................. 53
CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 55
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 55
Review of the Methodology.............................................................................................. 55
Data Demographics ........................................................................................................... 57
Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 58
Results ............................................................................................................................... 59
Participants Description of the Term Bush Allowance..................................................... 61
Category 1: Manifestation, Causes, and Characteristics of Sexual Exploitation .............. 63
Girls’ Responsibility ...................................................................................................... 64
Irresponsible Parenting .................................................................................................. 67
Pressure by Teachers ..................................................................................................... 72
Poverty ........................................................................................................................... 76
Lack of Punitive Measures ............................................................................................ 77
Shortage of Teachers in Rural Communities ................................................................. 79
Category 2: Consequences of Sexual Exploitation of Girls by Male Teachers in Rural
Schools .............................................................................................................................. 82
Emerging Themes: ......................................................................................................... 82
Pregnancy and School Dropout ..................................................................................... 82
Forced and Early Marriage ............................................................................................ 85
Cycle of poverty perpetuates ......................................................................................... 86
Psychological Trauma and Other Health Issues ............................................................ 88
Category 3: Gender Relations in the School Environment ............................................... 91