Building for Eternity: The History and Technology of Roman Concrete Engineering in the Sea

352 Pages·2014·20.22 MB·English

by  C.J. Brandon

BUILDING FOR ETERNITY

BUILDING FOR ETERNITY
THE HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
OF ROMAN CONCRETE ENGINEERING IN THE SEA
BY
C. J. BRANDON, R. L. HOHLFELDER, M. D. JACKSON and J. P. OLESON
With contributions by
L. Bottalico, S. Cramer, R. Cucitore, E. Gotti, C.R. Stern and G. Vola
EDITED BY J. P. OLESON
Oxbow Books
Oxford & Philadelphia
Published in the United Kingdom in 2014 by
OXBOW BOOKS
10 Hythe Bridge Street, Oxford OX1 2EW
and in the United States by
OXBOW BOOKS
908 Darby Road, Havertown, PA 19083
© Oxbow Books and the individual authors 2014
Reprinted in paperback DATE
Hardcover Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-420-8
Digital Edition: ISBN 978-1-78297-421-5; Mobi: ISBN 978-1-78297-422-2; PDF: ISBN 978-1-78297-423-9
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Brandon, C. J. (Christopher J.)
Building for eternity : the history and technology of Roman concrete engineering in the sea / by C.J. Brandon, R.L.
Hohlfelder, M.D. Jackson and J.P. Oleson ; with contributions by L. Bottalico, S. Cramer, R. Cucitore, E. Gotti, C.R.
Stern and G. Vola ; edited by J.P. Oleson.
1 online resource.
Summary: "This book explains how the Romans built so successfully in the sea with maritime concrete. The story
is a mix of archaeological, geological, historical and chemical research, with relevance to both ancient and modern
technology. It also bridges the gap between science and the humanities by integrating analytical materials science,
history, and archaeology, along with underwater exploration. The book will be of interest to anyone interested in Roman
architecture and engineering, and it will hold special interest for geologists and mineralogists studying the material
characteristics of pyroclastic volcanic rocks and their alteration in seawater brines. The demonstrable durability and
longevity of Roman maritime concrete structures may be of special interest to engineers working on cementing materials
appropriate for the long-term storage of hazardous substances such as radioactive waste"--Provided by publisher.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Description based on print version record and CIP data provided by publisher; resource not viewed.
ISBN 978-1-78297-421-5 (epub) -- ISBN 978-1-78297-422-2 (mobi (kindle)) -- ISBN 978-1-78297-423-9 ( pdf)
-- ISBN 978-1-78297-420-8 (hardcover) 1. Concrete construction--Rome--History. 2. Concrete construction--
Research--Mediterranean Region. 3. ROMACONS Project. 4. Marine engineering--Rome--History. 5. Technology-
-Rome--History. 6. Architecture, Roman. 7. Rome--Antiquities. 8. Mediterranean Region--Antiquities. 9.
Geology--Mediterranean Region. 10. Volcanic ash, tuff, etc.--Mediterranean Region--Analysis. I. Hohlfelder, Robert L.
II. Jackson, M. D. III. Oleson, John Peter. IV. Bottalico, L. (Luca) V. Title.
TH16
627'.702--dc23
2014032468
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
from the publisher in writing.
Printed in the United Kingdom by Berforts Information Press
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Oxbow Books is part of the Casemate Group
Front cover: Reconstruction of workers lowering mortar into formwork at Sebastos (Hohlfelder 1987: 264–65) (National
Geographic Society, used with permission).
To the unknown master builders of ancient Rome who challenged and tamed the sea,
and to the CTG Italcementi Group for unwavering support from the inception
of the Roman Maritime Concrete Study through the publication of this volume.
Their embrace of our vision made this book possible.

CONTENTS
Preface and Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................................................xi
List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................................................................................xii
List of Figures .............................................................................................................................................................................xiii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................................................................................xxii
List of Contributors ...................................................................................................................................................................xxiii
1. The Technology of Roman Maritime Concrete (J. P. Oleson and M. D. Jackson) ..........................................................1
1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................1
1.2. The unique character of Roman maritime concrete ...........................................................................................................2
1.3. Recent research on Roman concrete ..................................................................................................................................4
1.4. ROMACONS research questions .......................................................................................................................................6
1.5. Summary of the archaeological and engineering significance of the analyses of the ROMACONS samples .................8
2. Ancient Literary Sources Concerned with Roman Concrete Technology (J. P. Oleson) .........................................11
2.1. Theophrastus .....................................................................................................................................................................12
2.2. M. Porcius Cato ................................................................................................................................................................12
2.3. Vitruvius Pollio .................................................................................................................................................................14
2.4. Q. Horatius Flaccus ..........................................................................................................................................................23
2.5. P. Virgilius Maro ...............................................................................................................................................................24
2.6. Strabo ................................................................................................................................................................................24
2.7. L. Annaeus Seneca ...........................................................................................................................................................26
2.8. Pliny the Elder ..................................................................................................................................................................26
2.9. P. Papinius Statius ............................................................................................................................................................28
2.10. Flavius Josephus ...............................................................................................................................................................29
2.11. Pliny the Younger .............................................................................................................................................................31
2.12. C. Suetonius Tranquillus ..................................................................................................................................................32
2.13. Apuleius ............................................................................................................................................................................32
2.14. Cassius Dio .......................................................................................................................................................................32
2.15. M. Cetius Faventinus ........................................................................................................................................................33
2.16. Procopius of Caesarea ......................................................................................................................................................35
2.17. Inscriptions .......................................................................................................................................................................35
3. History and Procedures of the ROMACONS Project (C. J. Brandon and R. L. Hohlfelder) .......................................37
3.1. History of the project .......................................................................................................................................................37
3.2. Coring equipment and procedures....................................................................................................................................40
4. Narrative of the ROMACONS Fieldwork (R. L. Hohlfelder and C. J. Brandon) ...........................................................55
4.1. Portus, Fieldwork July–August 2002 ...............................................................................................................................55
4.2. Antium, Fieldwork August 2002 ......................................................................................................................................61
4.3. Cosa, Fieldwork July–August 2003 .................................................................................................................................63
4.4. Santa Liberata, Fieldwork June 2003, September 2004, and June 2005 .........................................................................69
4.5. Caesarea Palaestinae, Fieldwork October 2005 ...............................................................................................................73
4.6. Baianus Lacus, Baianus Sinus, and Portus Iulius (Bay of Pozzuoli), Fieldwork September 2006 .................................81
4.7. Alexandria, Fieldwork May 2007.....................................................................................................................................85
4.8. Chersonesos, Fieldwork September 2007 ........................................................................................................................89
4.9. Egnatia, Fieldwork May 2009 ..........................................................................................................................................93
4.10. Pompeiopolis, Fieldwork August 2009 ............................................................................................................................94
viii Contents
5. The Brindisi Pila Reproduction (J. P. Oleson) ................................................................................................................103
5.1. The reconstruction project: Methods and materials ......................................................................................................103
5.2. Formwork design ...........................................................................................................................................................105
5.3. Construction of the formwork .......................................................................................................................................107
5.4. Preparation of the mortar ..............................................................................................................................................108
5.5. Placement of the mortar and aggregate .........................................................................................................................110
5.6. Conclusions from the reconstruction experiment .........................................................................................................116
6. Maritime Concrete in the Mediterranean World (C. J. Brandon) .............................................................................121
6.1. Important sites not sampled by ROMACONS ..............................................................................................................121
6.2. Catalogue of maritime concrete structures around the Mediterranean and Portugal ...................................................123
7. Sea-water Concretes and their Material Characteristics (M. D. Jackson and collaborators) ................................141
7.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................................141
7.2. Geologic materials of the concretes ..............................................................................................................................145
7.3. Concrete mix design and preparation ............................................................................................................................160
7.4. Pozzolanic cementitious processes in the sea-water mortars ........................................................................................166
7.5. Material properties of the maritime concretes ..............................................................................................................175
7.6. Inferences regarding durability of the ancient sea-water concrete ...............................................................................183
7.7. Summary of analytical methods ....................................................................................................................................186
8. Roman Formwork Used for Underwater Concrete Construction (C. J. Brandon) ..................................................189
8.1. The Role of formwork in Roman concrete construction ..............................................................................................189
8.2. A Typology of Roman formwork design for marine construction: Fixed forms ..........................................................191
8.3. A Typology of formwork design for underwater construction: Prefabricated and floating forms ...............................208
8.4. Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................................................222
9. Roman Maritime Concrete Technology in its Mediterranean Context (R. L. Hohlfelder and J. P. Oleson) .........223
9.1. Trade in pozzolana, pumiceous ash pozzolan, and caementa .......................................................................................223
9.2. Mechanisms for the spread of innovation in Roman marine construction ...................................................................227
9.3. Conclusions: Society, trade, and technology in the Roman Mediterranean .................................................................233
Appendix 1: Glossary of Technical Terms (M. D. Jackson and J. P. Oleson) ........................................................................237
Appendix 2: Schedule of Samples Collected for Preliminary Study Prior to the ROMACONS Project
(C. J. Brandon and M. D. Jackson) ..........................................................................................................................................239
Appendix 3: Catalogue and Descriptions of Concretes Drilled from Marine Structures by ROMACONS
(J. P. Oleson, M. D. Jackson and G. Vola) ...............................................................................................................................243
A3.1. Santa Liberata .............................................................................................................................................................243
A3.2. Portus Cosanus ............................................................................................................................................................248
A3.3. Portus ..........................................................................................................................................................................253
A3.4. Portus Traiani ..............................................................................................................................................................256
A3.5. Antium ........................................................................................................................................................................258
A3.6. Baiae ...........................................................................................................................................................................260
A3.7. Secca Fumosa .............................................................................................................................................................261
A3.8. Portus Iulius ................................................................................................................................................................262
A3.9. Egnatia ........................................................................................................................................................................265
A3.10. Brindisi .......................................................................................................................................................................267
A3.11. Chersonesos ................................................................................................................................................................270
A3.12. Pompeiopolis ..............................................................................................................................................................272
A3.13. Caesarea Palaestinae ...................................................................................................................................................275
A3.14. Alexandria ...................................................................................................................................................................279
Contents ix
Appendix 4: Compositional Analyses of Concretes Drilled from Harbour Structures by ROMACONS
(M. D. Jackson and G. Vola) .....................................................................................................................................................285
Bibliography...............................................................................................................................................................................307
Index ..........................................................................................................................................................................................323