Building Blocks for Learning: Occupational Therapy Approaches: Practical Strategies for the Inclusion of Special Needs in Primary School

413 Pages·2008·2.76 MB·English

by  Jill Jenkinson, Tessa Hyde, Saffia Ahmad(auth.)

Building Blocks
for Learning:
Occupational
Therapy Approaches
Building Blocks
for Learning:
Occupational
Therapy Approaches
Practical Strategies for the Inclusion of Special
Needs in Primary School
Jill Jenkinson
Senior Children’s Occupational Therapist, Children’s Centre,
Dorset County Hospital, Dorchester
Tessa Hyde
Senior Children’s Occupational Therapist, Children’s Centre,
Royal United Hospital, Bath
and
Saffia Ahmad
Senior Children’s Occupational Therapist, Avon
and Wiltshire Mental Health Partnership NHS Trust;
Wiltshire Locality
This edition first published 2008
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Jenkinson, Jill.
Building blocks for learning, occupational therapy approaches :practical strategies for the inclusion of special needs
inprimary school / Jill Jenkinson;Tessa Hyde and Saffia Ahmad.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-470-05857-2 (hbk.:alk.paper)
1. Special education. 2. Occupational therapy
for children. I. Hyde, Tessa. II. Ahmad, Saffia. III. Title.
LC3965.J457 2008
371.9'0472—dc22
2008002752
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Set in 12 pt and Scala-Regular by Integra
Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd
1 2008
C
O
N
Contents
T
E
N
T
S
Foreword ix
Acknowledgements xi
Introduction xiii
Online resources xvii
Foundation Skills 1
Introduction to foundation skills 1
FS 1 Introduction to sensory processing 5
FS 1A Vestibular processing (movement and balance sense) 11
FS 1B Tactile sense and tactile processing 15
FS 1C Proprioceptive processing/sense 19
FS 1D Auditory processing 23
FS 1E Visual processing 27
FS 2 Introduction to gross motor coordination 31
FS 2A Motor planning 35
FS 2B Postural stability and balance 39
FS 2C Spatial and body awareness 43
FS 2D Bilateral integration 47
FS 2E Midline crossing and laterality 51
FS 3 Introduction to fine motor control 55
FS 3A Visual motor integration 59
FS 3B Vision and ocular motor control 63
FS 3C Manual dexterity 69
FS 4 Introduction to perception 73
FS 4A Visual discrimination 77
FS 4B Visual spatial relationships 81
FS 4C Visual form constancy 85
FS 4D Visual figure ground discrimination 89
FS 4E Visual closure 93
FS 4F Visual memory 97
FS 5 Introduction to language 101
FS 5A Attention and listening 103
FS 5B Receptive language 105
FS 5C Expressive language 107
FS 5D Auditory memory 109
FS 6 Organisation 111
FS 7 Social and emotional aspects 113
v
C Subject Areas 119
O
Introduction to subject areas 119
N
T SA 1 General behaviour 122
E
N SA 2 Literacy 126
T
S SA 3 Numeracy 130
SA 4 Science 134
SA 5 Art and Design 138
SA 6 Information Communication Technology 144
SA 7 Physical Education 146
Subject areas teacher observation summary chart 150
Personalised profile for child 151
Medical Conditions 153
Introduction to medical conditions 153
MC 1 Attention deficit disorder/attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder 155
MC 2 Autistic spectrum disorders, including Asperger’s syndrome 175
MC 3 Cerebral palsy 197
MC 4 Developmental coordination disorder including dyspraxia 221
MC 5 Physical disabilities 243
Occupational Therapy Approaches 247
Introduction to occupational therapy approaches 247
OTA 1 Building firm foundations for spatial and body awareness 249
OTA 2 Building firm foundations for left/right awareness 253
General activities 253
Activities to help with left/right discrimination on oneself 254
Activities to help with left/right orientation on others 255
Activities to help with left/right discrimination of objects 255
Activities to help with left/right orientation and tracking
when writing 256
OTA 3 Building firm foundations for fine motor control 259
Warm up for the upper limb 259
Handwriting warm up 261
Hand gym 263
Ideas for using therapeutic putty 265
Pencil aerobics 267
Doodle games 268
Hand/finger relaxation strategies 269
OTA 4 Building firm foundations for handwriting 271
Handwriting 271
Development of pencil grasp 273
vi
Efficient and inefficient grasps 274 C
O
Improving pencil grasp 276
N
Three easy stages for teaching pencil grip 277
T
Equipment to help develop pencil grasp and fluency 278
E
Commercially available equipment 279 N
Hand development for handwriting 280 T
S
Ergonomics 281
Table surface 282
Texture of writing paper or surface 283
Paper position 284
Position in class 284
Development of pencil skills 285
Pre-writing skills, based around using your senses 286
Multi-sensory handwriting approach 288
Establishing correct pressure 292
Consolidation for efficient handwriting 293
Rules for writing tasks 294
Activities to encourage self-evaluation of handwriting 296
Copying from the board 297
Specific advice for left-handed children 298
OTA 5 Building firm foundations for alternative methods of recording 305
Complexity of handwriting 305
Low-tech alternatives 306
Interactive whiteboards 306
Digital cameras 307
Word processing as an alternative 308
ICT resources 310
Suggested equipment 310
Software 310
Adaptations/strategies to try 311
Further resources 312
OTA 6 Building firm foundations for dressing skills 315
OTA 7 Building firm foundations for scissor development 319
The 14 steps in scissor skill development 319
Activities to develop pre-scissor skills 320
Activities to help with scissor skills 320
Equipment to help with scissor control 321
OTA 8 Sensory strategies 323
OTA 9 Self-organisation approaches 327
OTA 10 Consolidating foundation skills through group activities 333
Establishing groups 334
Non-themed activity groups 336
Themed activity groups 336
OTA 10A Gross motor activities for pirate groups 340
OTA 10B Fine motor activities for pirate groups 344
OTA 11 Consolidating foundation skills for transition from primary
to secondary school 349
vii
C Appendices 359
O
N A 1 Ages and stages of development 361
T
A 2 Alphabet ABC sentences 369
E
N
A 3 Fine motor circuit score sheet 371
T
S A 4 Handwriting self-evaluation checklist 373
A 5 Handwriting programmes and fine motor resources 375
A 6 Information communication technology checklist 379
A 7 Movement programmes and gross motor resources 381
A 8 Individual child profile 387
A 9 Resources for developing social, emotional and behavioural skills 389
A 10 Teachers’ checklist for visual signs 395
A 11 Thinking skills 397
A 12 Twelve rules of legibility 401
A 13 Visual perception resources 403
A 14 Work system 405
Equipment Resources 407
Suppliers’ Addresses 413
Useful Addresses 417
Further Reading 421
Glossary 423
Index 427
viii
F
O
R
Foreword E
W
O
R
Over the past decade, there have been several positive shifts in social policy D
that have encouraged us to accept difference and embrace diversity. As a
consequence, approaches to learning have also changed, and there has been
a marked shift in emphasis from the segregation of children who have dif-
ferent learning needs to differentiating the needs of all children within a
mainstream classroom. This has led to us thinking about differences rather
than deficiencies; abilities rather than limitations; and viewing children as
individuals with unique learning needs rather than children with a series of
symptoms which make up a recognised syndrome or condition.
This paradigm shift has influenced how paediatric occupational thera-
pists practice, and also how educationalists address the diverse motor, cog-
nitive, sensory, language and/or perceptual needs of children now included
in the mainstream education system. The two systems at work, education
and health, must converge their different yet not disparate methods of
meeting special educational needs to support this positive movement, in
order to enable children to achieve their potential within the constraints of
the educational curriculum.
Occupational therapy facilitates a child’s engagement in purposeful
activities such as play, educational activities such as handwriting and physi-
cal education (PE), and activities for daily living, including dressing and
undressing before and after PE. In addition, they are concerned with pro-
ductivity which, when related to children, focuses on organisation, motiva-
tion, attention and application. The professional education of occupational
therapists provides an understanding of child development in respect to
biological, physiological, sensory and psychological processes, enabling
them to understand internal constraints, while appreciating the importance
of motivation, on a child’s occupational performance.
Teachers facilitate learning within the context of a structured educational
curriculum. The term ‘education’ originates from the Latin educare,
meaning to ‘draw forth’. This can be seen in their professional education,
which provides the background for enabling children to learn, by providing
the tools, explanations and resources from which they explore and
understand their world. Teachers are equipped in planning and preparing
the learning experience based on their understanding of the scaffolding of
children’s development.
The successful inclusion of children with special educational needs
(SEN) can only be achieved by the sharing of this expertise. Building Blocks
for Learning is a text that aims to do this by informing teachers and parents
alike about the influences on children’s engagement and success in educa-
tion, by providing some understanding as to why children may respond in
the way they do. This information will add to the body of knowledge about
children’s development. The practical elements provide possible strategies
in addressing certain issues that have arisen in the classroom and have
been developed in collaboration with teachers.
ix
F The foundation skills of early sensory development are described in
O
detail in order that there may be an understanding of how these underpin
R
many educational activities. For example, the skill of handwriting not only
E
W requires complex manipulative skills, but also intact visuo-spatial process-
O ing, visual discrimination, proprioceptive regulation, symbol recognition
R and literacy skills. Practical strategies are suggested where a child has been
D
unable to establish these fundamental foundation skills.
The effects of constraints in acquiring foundation skills are then discussed
in relation to selected subject areas.These address several aspects of the educa-
tional curriculum, for example literacy, numeracy, ICT, art, science and PE.
These help the reader to embed information in the appropriate context rather
than see the child as having a deficit. The teacher therefore ascertains whether
a differentiated teaching approach is needed or whether the environment or
context of learning can be adapted to address the specific learning need. For
example, if a child is struggling to attend due to the overwhelming visual
material in the classroom, can the classroom environment be adjusted to
accommodate this? If a child cannot participate in the PE lesson can the whole
or part of the lesson be adapted to accommodate her needs?
The introduction of the International Classification of Function, Disability
and Health (ICF) by the World Health Organisation in 2001 challenged the
use of diagnostic labels to classify individual need. By shifting the focus
from cause to functional impact, intended to reduce the premise that the
needs of children with SEN could be explained in terms of a ‘medical’ or
‘biological’ dysfunction, this ICF framework appreciates that contextual fac-
tors as well as body functions and structures can restrict an individual’s
participation and learning. However, in many local authorities additional
educational resources to support the child with SEN are allocated on the
basis of dysfunction. Therefore, the section entitled medical conditions gives
the teacher and/or therapist some insight into terminology still used by
many health care and educational practitioners.
Reference to medical diagnosis should, in time, reduce as we move away
from using recognised terms to describe a group of symptoms towards an
emphasis on individual profiles with functional abilities and functional
restrictions. During this transitory period, this section can provide teachers,
parents and new health care practitioners with an overview of the diagnostic
criteria for many childhood conditions seen in mainstream schools today.
The final section of this immensely practical manual entitled occupa-
tional therapy approaches provides a wealth of workable strategies for
enabling the busy teacher to individualise and differentiate learning
resources to enable each child to maximise his potential. It also advises on
occasions where the classroom itself should be restructured or altered. It
helps the practitioner to see the unique needs of all children and to adjust
materials accordingly; as such, it demonstrates how inclusive practice is a
continuous process involved in breaking down the barriers to learning for
all children.
Lois M. Addy
Senior Lecturer
Faculty of Health and Life Sciences
York St John University
x
A
C
K
Acknowledgements N
O
W
L
Our interest and motivation in attempting this second book initially arose E
D
through encouragement from teachers and occupational therapists who
G
were using our previous book Occupational Therapy Approaches for
E
Secondary Special Needs: Practical Classroom Strategies. In preparing this M
second manuscript we have sought the views and experience of occupa- E
N
tional therapists, teachers and teaching assistants and other educational
T
and medical specialists.
S
We wish to thank our family and friends who have provided endless
supplies of patience, support, encouragement, and practical help, wonder-
ing if this task would ever end. In particular, John Hyde for his unstinting
patience designing and formatting the subject tables and Dennis Jenkinson
for his endless patience and perseverance in classifying and finding refer-
ences, formatting the condition tables and responding to cries for help.
We are most grateful to colleagues who have given us their expertise,
advice and support in their specialist areas, often at short notice within
their busy schedules: Rosemary Blundell for her detailed proof reading and
suggestions on grammar; our occupational therapy colleagues Naomi
Floyd, Gill Pocock and Emma Puttock for their ongoing ideas, support and
editing; Catherine Catterall, a speech and language therapy colleague, for
her time and contribution writing the communication and language sec-
tions; Johanna Gates for her educational advice and constructive editing;
Keith Holland for his contribution to the visual processing and vision and
ocular motor control section and Jane Taylor for proof reading the hand-
writing section.
The ideas and activities within this book have been tried and tested over
many years of occupational therapy practice in a variety of settings. We
would like to acknowledge our colleagues who have shared their skills and
expertise with us and are grateful for the many ways they have enriched
our working lives. None of this would have been possible without the chil-
dren and their families who have taught us so much.
The authors acknowledge that the teaching observations and practical
strategies are not exhaustive and they cannot take any responsibility for
their use. They have also used most, but not all, of the equipment listed
and cannot accept any responsibility for its use. Web addresses cited
throughout the book were last accessed in March 2008.
xi